Theoretical Framework Science & Values

Theoretical FrameworkScience & Values Chris Borgmeier, PhD Portland State University

Questions • How should special educators make decisions about choosing practices to support student needs? • Why are research, theoretical frameworks and data each important for guiding decision making and choosing professional practices in special education? • How does research inform practice? • How do I identify research based practices when I need interventions for a student challenge?

Research Based Theoretical Framework • What if there isn’t really a research-based curriculum or intervention for the individual needs of my student? • No random control trials; no group research • Look to single case research • Application of Research Based Principles • Grounding in a sound theoretical framework

Positivism • Positivism is a rejection of superstition. It is the practice of empirical science. The goal of knowledge is to describe the phenomena experienced – observe and measure. The universe is deterministic. • Understood through a methodology of careful observation and experiments that are repeatable. We learn through the Scientific Method – Deductive – postulate theories that we can test EMPIRICALLY • Primary Method(s): Experimentation. The methodology can be manipulation, hypothesis testing, data gathering, etc. Positivism is mostly quantitative, but qualitative methods can be used to generate hypothesis. • Ontology: Naïve realism –there are universal laws. A thing can be true regardless of context such as time or place. The researcher attempts to be value-free, the research is pure and for it’s own value, facts and values are kept separate. However, the results can be used to promote change.

Post-positivism • Post-positivism rejects the central tenets of positivism. • Primary Method(s):Modified experiment/manipulation. The researcher attempts to falsify his or her hypothesis (not prove, proof is always elusive), mostly quantitative, but qualitative research can be used to generate hypothesis and guide new quantitative measures. • Ontology: Critical realism – all observation is fallible and has error and all theory can be revised.

Constructivism • Constructivism, Many post-positivists are constructivists who believe that we each construct our view of the world based on our perceptions of it. Because perception and observation are fallible, our constructions must be imperfect. • Ontology: Relativism – no universal laws or absolute truths, reality is constructed. Because research is bound by the context all people’s values are important to the process because this informs the research. • Social constructivism or socioculturalism encourages the learner to arrive at his or her version of the truth, influenced by his or her background, culture or embedded worldview. • It is argued that the responsibility of learning should reside increasingly with the learner (Glasersfeld, 1989).

Learning TheoriesBehaviorist & Constructivist

Constructivism as a Learning Theory • “Discovery Learning” or “Experiential Learning” - learning involves constructing one's own knowledge from one's own experiences • Promotes a student's free exploration within a given framework or structure • Teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems.

Constructivism: What the researchers say • Based on the results of their research, these authors do not support the idea of allowing novices to interact with constructivist learning environments contexts • Paas, 1992; Moreno & Mayer, 1999; Mousavi, Low, & Sweller, 1995; Chandler and Sweller, 1992; Sweller & Cooper, 1985; Cooper & Sweller, 1987 • Ill-structured learning environments rely on the learner to discover problem solutions. Novices should be taught with "well-structured" learning environments. • Jonassen, 1997

Constructivism: What the researchers say • After a half century of advocacy associated with instruction using minimal guidance, there appears no body of research supporting the technique. In so far as there is any evidence from controlled studies, it almost uniformly supports direct, strong instructional guidance rather constructivist-based minimal guidance during the instruction of novice to intermediate learners. Even for students with considerable prior knowledge, strong guidance while learning is most often found to be equally effective as unguided approaches. Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when student acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge” • Kirschner, P.A., Sweller, J. & Clark, R.E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41, 75-86.a

Behavioral or Learning Theory Assumptions of Behavioral Theory • Behavior is Learned • Focus on the observable and measurable • Behavior is related to the environment in which it occurs • Behavior serves a purpose • Focus on how environmental variables can be manipulated to effect changes in behavior & learning • Measure student outcomes & learning • Educational approaches that have emerged from behaviorism include: • applied behavior analysis • Functional assessment • curriculum based measurement and progress monitoring, and • Direct instruction have emerged from this model • Discrete Trial Training • Modeling, shaping, fading, reinforcement, contract, extinction, etc.

Behaviorism Conceptual Foundations Laws of Behavior ABA Applied Behavioral Technology Effective Instruction PBS RTI & SW-PBIS Social Validity All Students

Fad or Fact?Individualization x Learning Styles • The term learning styles refers to the view that different people learn information in different ways. • Visual learners • Auditory learners • Kinesthetic learners

Pashler, McDaniel, Rohrer & Bjork, 2008 The learning-styles view has acquired great influence within the education field, and is frequently encountered at levels ranging from kindergarten to graduate school. There is a thriving industry devoted to publishing learning-styles tests and guidebooks for teachers, and many organizations offer professional development workshops for teachers and educators built around the concept of learning styles.

Pashler, McDaniel, Rohrer & Bjork, 2008 • “Although the literature on learning styles is enormous, very few studies have even used an experimental methodology capable of testing the validity of learning styles applied to education. Moreover, of those that did use an appropriate method, several found results that flatly contradict the popular meshing hypothesis. “ • “We conclude therefore, that at present, there is no adequate evidence base to justify incorporating learning styles assessments into general educational practice."

Arter & Jenkins, 1977 • Conducted a Research Review & practitioner survey re: “Learning Styles” • "In spite of the absence of evidence that supports modality instructional matching, textbooks urge teachers to adopt this approach, and the majority of special education teachers believe in and employ this model.“ • “no one has successfully demonstrated that beginning reading instruction can be improved by modality and instructional matching”

INDIVIDUALIZATIONPSU SPED Critical Concept A systematic and collaborative process to develop and adapt environments, supports and instruction to individual needs. Individual considerations include the strengths, cultural and family contexts, preferences and priorities of the learner and family.

Response To Intervention (RTI) • Learning Disability v. Instructional Disability • Want to rule out instruction as cause for disability • Assess Learning & Environment • Other factors: • attendance

Necessary components of Assessment • When a student is experiencing difficulty, several related & complementary types of assessment should be performed • Assessment of the Learner (Student) • Assessment of Instruction (or Intervention) Curriculum and Environment Learner Instruction/ Intervention Curriculum Environment

Instructional Disability v. Learning Disability • The INSTRUCTION a student has received is assessed to determine whether the student’s difficulties stem from inadequate curriculum or teaching (Instructional Disability) • When instruction is found to be inadequate, the student should be given appropriate instruction to see whether it alleviates the difficulty • When appropriate instruction fails to remediate the difficulty, further assessment of the student is carried out to determine if there is a Learning Disability

Criteria: Double Deficit The student is significantly below grade level when compared to grade peers The student is not making progress toward the benchmark according to the progress monitor data (i.e., flat trajectory)

Instructional Challenge • For instruction to be effective, it must be possible for the learner, with reasonable effort, to master the information (facts, skills, behavior, or processes) being taught • Unchallenging Content • teaching what is already known • Appropriately Challenging Content • Overly Challenging Content

Individualization • What does individualization mean for a student who: • Is exceeding grade level and has no behavioral problems (mainstream student) • Is 4 grade levels behind in reading (6th grade student reading at a 2nd grade level; learning disability: reading) • Is at grade level academically but has significant behavioral problems • Is in 6th grade w/ significant cognitive deficits (IQ = 65); limited functional living skills (e.g. does not dress, clean or toilet independently)

Phases of Learning/TeachingAlberto & Troutman, 2009 • Acquisition – student’s ability to perform a newly learned skill/response to some criterion of accuracy • Fluency– describe the rate at which students accurately perform a response; learner begins to build speed & efficiency in use of the skill or knowledge (but may not remember skill/knowledge over time without prompting) • Maintenance– student is able to recall & use the skill/ knowledge with a high rate of accuracy over more extended spans of time with limited review • Generalization– student generalizes skill or knowledge to novel contexts and as prior knowledge for learning new information

Acquisition Phase • Acquisition – student’s ability to perform a newly learned skill/response to some criterion of accuracy • Strong use of reinforcers • Regular prompting & error correction • Modeling & Guided practice • Model-Lead-Test/Model-Prompt-Check/I do-We do-You do • Important to have critical background knowledge & prerequisite skills A-B-C

Fluency • Following skill acquisition -- focus on improving the RATE at which the learner performs the behavior • What is an appropriate rate required for functional performance? • Reading, bus money, small talk, etc. • Teaching Strategies • Frequent structured practice • Fading to intermittent reinforcement A-B-C

Maintenance • Once learners can perform a skill fluently, it is important to maintain the skill over time • What • Teaching Strategies • Make sure you are teaching functional/useful skills • Student access to natural reinforcers • Over-learning • Delayed reinforcement A-B-C

Generalization • Learners can use skill across settings other than the initial instructional conditions • Train for generalization v. Train & Hope • Teaching Strategies • Vary training across (Antecedent stimuli): • Settings • People • Signals/Prompt types • Teach the universe of examples • Intermittent reinforcement w/ link to natural reinforcers (Consequences) • Reinforce occurrences of generalization • Reinforce response across settings A-B-C

Reinforcement Continuum & Phases of Teaching Stages of Learning/Teaching Acquisition Fluency  Maintenance Continuous Intermittent…………fading… Rates of Review & Reinforcement Continuous – provide reinforcement/corrective feedback on every occurrence of behavior – reinforcement may be tangible paired w/ verbal praise Intermittent – fade tangible, continue w/ intermittent verbal praise Can usually anticipate that academic success or social benefits will continue to maintain desired behavior. A-B-C

Theoretical Framework Science & Values