BIBLIOGRAPHIC RESOURCES

1. BIBLIOGRAPHIC RESOURCES RESEARCH AND SOURCES

2. RESEARCHversus SCHOLARSHIP RESEARCH: ACTIVE Acts of study, observation, data collection, and analysis PRIMARY RESEARCH SECONDARY RESEARCH, PUBLISHED SECONDARY RESEARCH, UNPUBLISHED (INTERVIEWS) RESEARCH AIDS SCHOLARSHIP: PASSIVE Uses of published sources and others’ research PRIMARY SOURCE SECONDARY SOURCE, UNPUBLISHED and PUBLISHED TERTIARY (REPRINTED) SOURCES REFERENCE SOURCES

3. PRIMARY RESEARCH with one exception, receives NO citation of any kind a.k.a., “Firsthand” research; research actively performed by you personally conducted experiments data mined and compiled by you: surveys; questionnaires; etc. original graphs or charts created from personally gathered data Your firsthand observations and anecdotal evidence Your original illustrations Personal interviews conducted by you (questions are written by you) PERSONAL INTERVIEWS: SECONDARY UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH Interviews that are conducted firsthand as part of Primary Research draw insights and knowledge from others as living sources. Interviews are, therefore, a hybrid of primary and unpublished secondary research. CITATIONS: Instead of a contextual citation, introduce the interviewed source by name and by credentials in your paragraph: “In a telephone interview conducted with Harvard University Political Science professor, YoannaJurgensen….” Then, cite the interview bibliographically: Jurgensen, Yoanna. Telephone interview. 13 May 2014.

4. Is Primary Research Necessary? No, not always. Most college-level writing assignments require the use of scholarship, but not necessary primary research. Primary research is more common for hands-on topics such as: Scientific and medical research Sociology and psychology studies White papers Dissertation, Master’s Thesis and other advanced studies research

5. PRIMARY SOURCE A source written and/or published by someone who has conducted firsthand his or her own research, study and/or analysis. • books and periodical literature (newspapers, magazines, monthlies, bi-monthlies, quarterlies, semi-annuals, bi-annuals) • lectures, PhD dissertations, Master’s theses • pamphlets and broadsides • documentaries (film, video and/or radio) • scholarly internet websites • fact books SECONDARY RESEARCH Research of others’ published results, writing, or research; scholarship of findings not published or conducted by you. CITING PRIMARY SOURCES PRIMARY SOURCES ARE ALWAYS CITED. They must be cited contextual when quoted, paraphrased, or used for their unique content. They must always be cited bibliographically, in the Works Cited, according to primary authorship and primary title.

6. SECONDARY SOURCE A primary source that has been republished by a third party, with credit given to the primary author(s). Acceptable when researchers cannot locate primary sources, or when libraries make such sources available in proprietary collections. • Electronic data bases • Anthologies • Digests • Encyclopedias • Reprints • Microforms • transcripts of news programs, documentaries and lectures • specialized topic series (e.g., CQ Researcher, or Controversial Issues) TERTIARY RESEARCH Scholarship of others’ published results, writing, or research, that have been repackaged, reprinted, or republished by a third-party. CITING SECONDARY SOURCES When quoted, paraphrased, or used for their unique content, SECONDARY SOURCES must always be cited, both, contextual and bibliographically. Additional citation information is needed to credit the third-party providers (e.g., a database or anthology editors).

7. REFERENCE SOURCE A tool published to assist researchers in finding useful sources of scholarship and data. • Abstracts • Indexes • selected bibliographies • annotated bibliographies • subject heading indexes • tables of contents • dust jackets and book covers • electronic catalog data (e.g., Call Numbers and Summary) • Dictionaries and encyclopedias* RESEARCH AIDS Reference sources are not scholarship. They aid to your scholarship: they offer an activity to help you to find citable sources and info, or collect knowledge already in the public domain. Consequently, they are not quoted or cited in your essay, whether contextually or bibliographically. EXCEPTIONS are sometimes made for dictionary definitions and encyclopedic entries, but only when a writer wishes draw a specific point about the wording of the reference source. Otherwise, the content of reference sources should be used to refer you to primary and secondary sources of citable scholarship.

8. What is a “scholarly source”? • Author(s) connected to accredited and/or respected institutions of learning • Published research is vetted for its standards of scholarship, its accuracy, and the credibility of its authors and sources • Peer Review: scholarly or professional peers read and critically respond to the content of the published sources • Primary and secondary sources are used and cited by the author

9. What’s NOT a scholarly source? • Wikipedia and “wiki” anything: these are scholarly reference sources. • Commercial publications and websites (.com’s). • If a commercial site has valuable statistics and facts you need, find out where they were gathered. • If you can find out, go to that source instead—if it is reliable and scholarly. • Look for .org, .edu, or .gov. (Note: “.org” can also be unreliable, and “.edu” may contain published works not held to peer review, nor vetted for their reliability. Always check the source and the author’s credentials. • Blogs by individuals unaffiliated with professional or scholarly institutions. • Popular sources of entertainment.

10. How do I evaluate how trustworthy an author or source is? • Research his or her credentials and scholarly investment in the topic. • Research the agendas of the agencies of institutions to which they are connected. • Examine their sources and authorities for clues to any hidden agendas or biased ideologies. • Be on the lookout for fallacies of logic and rhetorical appeal.

11. Rhetorical Appeals Pathos: appeal to emotion poetical language and rhythms allusions: literary and mythological case examples, human interest Example For me, commentary on war zones at home and abroad begins and ends with personal reflections.  A few years ago, while watching the news in Chicago, a local news story made a personal connection with me.  The report concerned a teenager who had been shot because he had angered a group of his male peers.  This act of violence caused me to recapture a memory from my own adolescence because of an instructive parallel in my own life with this boy who had been shot.  When I was a teenager some thirty-five years ago in the New York metropolitan area, I wrote a regular column for my high school newspaper.  One week, I wrote a colunm in which I made fun of the fraternities in my high school.  As a result, I elicited the anger of some of the most aggressive teenagers in my high school.  A couple of nights later, a car pulled up in front of my house, and the angry teenagers in the car dumped garbage on the lawn of my house as an act of revenge and intimidation. James Garbarino "Children in a Violent World: A Metaphysical Perspective”

12. Fallacies of Emotion • Red Herring • Appeals to . . . • patriotism • fear • jingoism • like-ism • bandwagon

13. Rhetorical Appeals Logos: appeal to intellect clinical/technical tone favoring facts and data over examples organizing arguments overtly into logical syllogisms Example "Let us begin with a simple proposition:  What democracy requires is public debate, not information.  Of course it needs information too, but the kind of information it needs can be generated only by vigorous popular debate.  We do not know what we need to know until we ask the right questions, and we can identify the right questions only by subjecting our ideas about the world to the test of public controversy.  Information, usually seen as the precondition of debate, is better understood as its by product.  When we get into arguments that focus and fully engage our attention, we become avid seekers of relevant information.  Otherwise, we take in information passively--if we take it in at all." Christopher Lasch, "The Lost Art of Political Argument

14. INDUCTIVE REASONING Inducting or Inducing: an act of bring in, or bringing about, into the open; to persuade by inferring the general significance of specific evidence or examples. In logic, inductive arguments develop from specific examples, details or facts into conclusions that are, both, more general and probably true (as opposed to definitive conclusions in Deductive Reasoning). Q. How can you tell an elephant has been in your refrigerator? A. There are elephant footprints in the butter. The Specific Conditions are the evidence of footprints in the butter, from which a leap of inductive reasoning is made to assume that they can only be caused by an elephant. Inductive Reasoning is a process of three major steps: HYPOTHESIS: An intuitive conclusion or a speculative answer to a question. EVIDENCE COLLECTION: An impartial example- or fact-gathering process INFERENCE: a answer to the hypothesis based on what can be known from the evidence; a generalization about what's probably true (not possibly true, but probably)

15. Fallacies of logos Inductive Fallacies: errors in inductive reasoning caused by flawed hypotheses, flawed methodologies for evidence gathering, or flawed methods of inference Hasty Generalization (Sweeping Generalization) I asked six of my friends what they thought of the new spending restraints and they agreed it is a good idea. The new restraints are therefore generally popular. Unrepresentative Sample (Misleading Facts) To see how Canadians will vote in the next election we polled a hundred people in Calgary. This shows conclusively that the Reform Party will sweep the polls. (People in Calgary tend to be more conservative, and hence more likely to vote Reform, than people in the rest of the country.) False or Weak Analogies Government is like business, so just as business must be sensitive primarily to the bottom line, so also must government. (But the objectives of government and business are completely different, so probably they will have to meet different criteria.) Slothful (Lazy) Induction: Hugo has had twelve accidents in the last six months, yet he insists that it is just a coincidence and not his fault. (Inductively, the evidence is overwhelming that it is his fault.

16. DEDUCTIVE REASONING Deducting or Deducing: an act of taking away, or subtracting, leaving what remains; 5he use of syllogism to arrange a set of conditions or premises so that, through the act of logical subtraction, a definitive conclusion remains: SYLLOGISM: an equation in which the truth of one premise and the true of another premise become a common truth: if p, then q; if q, then r: therefore, if p, then r. Statements of "subtraction" and "conclusion" use the language of formal logic: if (when) . . . then; as a result; therefore; ergo; when . . . then; as a cause; in effect; etc. An arrangement of premises: MAJOR PREMISE: a general statement established as true and used as the basis on which to apply other premises: A = All men are mortals. MINOR PREMISE: a more specific statement that relates to, or uses the language of, the Major Premise: B = Socrates is a man. CONCLUSION: a specific assertion that is proven to be definitely or probably true and drawn from the Major and Minor Premise(s): D = Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

17. Fallacies of logos Deductive Fallacies:errors in deductive reasoning caused by inconsistencies or errors in the way that the Major and Minor premises are presented, or in the methods of logic used to deduce the conclusions from them. Begging the Question (petitioprincipii) Since I'm not lying, it follows that I'm telling the truth. Non sequitur (does not follow) If the mill were polluting the river then we would see an increase in fish deaths. And fish deaths have increased. Thus, the mill is polluting the river. Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc (post hoc reasoning; coincidental correlation) Ice Cream Rape Study False Dilemma America: love it or leave it.

18. Rhetorical Appeals Ethos: appeal to character, as opposed to "mores” (correct behaviors) sincere, caring about readers and the issues trustworthy truthful Example "My Dear Fellow Clergymen: . . . I think I should indicate why I am here in Birmingham, since you have been influenced by the view which argues against "outsiders coming in."...I, along with several members of my staff, am here because I was invited here.  I am here because I have organizational ties here. But more basically, I am in Birmingham because injustice is here.  Just as the prophets of the eighth century B.C. left their villages and carried their "thus saith the Lord" far beyond the boundaries of their home towns, and just as the Apostle Paul left his village of Tarsus and carried the gospel of Jesus Christ to the far corners of the Greco-Roman world, so am I compelled to carry the gospel of freedom beyond my own home town.  Like Paul, I must constantly respond to the Macedonian call for aid.” Martin Luther King, Jr. "Letter from Birmingham Jail”

19. Fallacies of Ethos and Authority • Ad hominem • Straw man • Doubtful Authority