6 – Learning Most students rely on learning strategies that are ineffective or inefficient. Which learning strategies a

1. 6 – Learning Most students rely on learning strategies that are ineffective or inefficient. Which learning strategies are best? Which should be avoided?

2. Repetition / Rehearsal Experiment Ss heard word list: grass gold toy luck gift After each word, Ss said last g word: grass gold goldgold gift Words arranged so that S repeated each g word 0 - 12 times. Later, Ss received surprise recall test on g words. Results Implication: Rehearsing is not an effective learning strategy (Craik & Watkins, 1973) % recall # of repetitions

3. Craik and Watkins (1973) % recall # of times word was repeated aloud

4. blank

5. Highlighting Experiment Ss read 8000-word article from Scientific American Three groups: active highlighters (Ss told to highlight “particularly important” text) passive highlighters (text is pre-highlighted) read Ss return one week later, spend 10 minutes looking over article, take test Results: no differences (Fowler & Barker, 1974)

6. Numerous experiments have examined efficacy of highlighting (or underlining) Usual finding: reading with highlighting = reading without highlighting A few studies show small benefit if Ss select the text (and if they select the correct text) But this benefit probably reflects Ss’ decision about what to highlight. Highlighting is ineffective because it not require understanding. Caveat: highlighting is fine if aim is to merely mark the location (for a review, see Dunlosky et al., 2013)

7. Demo: Read passage The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange things into different groups depending on their makeup. Of course, one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities, that is the next step; otherwise you are pretty well set. It is important not to overdo any particular endeavor. That is, it is better to do too few things at once than too many. In the short run, this may not seem important, but complications from doing too many can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well. The manipulation of the appropriate mechanisms should be self-explanatory, and we need not dwell on it here. At first the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon, however, it will become just another facet of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future, but then one never can tell.

8. Reading Experiment Ss read passage with or without its title. Passage was incomprehensible without its title. Later, Ss were asked to recall passage Results: Titled passages better recalled. Implication Reading helps only if text is understood Advice is obvious but unheeded. (Bransford & Johnson, 1972)

9. Demo- Read passage A newspaper is better than a magazine. A seashore is a better place than the street. At first it is better to run than to walk. You may have to try several times. It takes some skill but it is easy to learn. Even young children can enjoy it. Once successful, complications are minimal. Birds seldom get too close. Rain, however, soaks in very fast. Too many people doing the same thing can also cause problems. One needs lots of room. If there are no complications it can be very peaceful. A rock will serve as an anchor. If things break loose from it, you will not get a second chance.

10. Most U.S. students lack basic skills. • Most high school students cannot • write grammatically • solve simple math problems* • recall basic facts from Science, History, Geography* • * When tested at the end of the course (before they’ve had years to forget).

11. Large representative survey of U.S. students (public and private) 11th grade history students asked to identify the half century for each event. (multiple-choice) EventAnswer% Correct US Constitution written 1750-1800 61% World War I 1900-1950 57% Civil War 1850-1900 32%

12. Large representative survey of U.S. students (public and private) 8th grade math questions (multiple choice) Multiply -5 and -7 Answer = 35 50% correct (5 choices) A turkey is put in the oven at 10:30 a.m. If the turkey takes 2¾ hours to cook, when should it be taken out of the oven? Answer = 1:15 p.m. 55% correct (4 choices) (U.S. Dept of Education)

13. Study comparing mathematics proficiency of students in different countries Percentage of students who were “advanced” Taiwan 45 Singapore 40 South Korea 40 Hong Kong 31 Japan 26 . . . United States 6 Serbia 5 Slovenia 4 (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study, 2007)

14. SurveyQuestion: “I get good marks in mathematics.” Percentage who Agreed or Strongly Agreed Program for International Student Assessment (2003)

15. The same study measured performance ...

16. 5-Minute University (Comedian Don Novello) People who went to college can tell you what they learned in just 5 minutes. So, at my college, students learn just the same stuff – all in 5 minutes. www.youtube.com/watch?v=kO8x8eoU3L4

17. Think deeply Experiment Ss heard list of words. After each word, Ss answered a question. ½ Ss: Does it include an “e” ? shallow processing ½ Ss: Is the word pleasant? deep processing(think about meaning) Later, Ss took surprise test Results deep >> shallow  Implication Students should think about what they hear and read (obviously) (e.g., Craik & Lockhart, 1972)

18. Self-Explanation During lecture or reading, student periodically explains material. Experiment Ss read chapter in Biology text ½ Ss were occasionally interrupted and asked to explain what they just read ½ Ss read and reread chapter Later, Ss tested on material Results: Explainers outscored Rereaders (Smith et al., 2010)

19. Data: reading with self-explanation > reading alone (even if total time equated) There are several ways to incorporate self-explanation (or self-query) Example Student reads, “If interference is proactive, prior learning disrupts subsequent learning.” Student writes, “PI = learn A, learn B, can’t recall B. Why? A interfered with B.” Example Student reads article describing experiment. When finished, student explains procedure and results. PowerPoint Effect Lecture slides lead students to sit passively rather than write notes in their own words. (For reviews, see Dunlosky et al., 2013; Roediger & Pyc, 2012)

20. Answer Feedback After making mistake, student sees correct answer Data: Seeing correct answer after error improves scores on subsequent test. This rather obvious advice is often ignored Many teachers don’t correct spelling. Many college students don’t bother to look at answer key. Many K-12 tests are secure (so students cannot see answers).

21. Retrieval Practice Try to recall information (rather than reread or rehearse) Example Flashcards Many disciplines inherently require retrieval practice Examples Writing requires recall of spelling and syntax Math problems require recall of procedures Answering Spanish teacher requires recall of vocabulary, grammar But many courses do not (e.g., history, geography, cognitive psychology). Should these courses include retrieval practice?

22. Experiment Ss learned Swahili-English pairs Ss repeatedly cycled through pairs using 1 of 2 strategies Study-Only MASHUA – BOAT LESO – SCARF etc. Retrieval Practice (with feedback) MASHUA - ? …BOAT LESO - ? … SCARF etc. Total learning time equated. Ss took final test. Results: Retrieval Practice much better. (Karpicke & Roediger, 2008)

23. Countless studies have shown benefit of retrieval practice. Thus, tests improve learning (and not only assess learning) Another benefit of retrieval practice: students learn how well they know material Educational implications: Students should test themselves Teachers should give lots of practice questions and quizzes Demo www.sheppardsoftware.com/canada_G0_Click.html

24. Caveats Tests don’t help learning unless students try to recall information Example Good Who invented cotton gin? Bad Who invented cotton gin? a. Edison b. Bell c. Whitney d. Carver Students must use retrieval practice to learn the relevant material or skill Example Flashcard: quadratic formula  Knowing formula doesn’t mean that student can use it to solve a problem Note: In this course, students should work practice sets, not memorize definitions

25. Spacing Distributing a certain amount of study effort over a longer period of time Example Which French course is more effective? Semester Course 3 hours per week for 15 weeks = 45 hours Intensive Course 15 hours per week for 3 weeks = 45 hours

26. Experiment Ss learned trivia. Result: Spacers recalled 200% more! This is called the spacing effect. The spacing effect is amazing because 1) Spacing does not require more study time 2) Spacing effect is not due to recent review because test delay is fixed. (Cepeda et al., 2009) gap = 4 weeks test delay = 24 weeks Study for 1 hour Study for 1 hour • space Test test delay = 24 weeks Study for 1 hour Study for 1 hour • mass Test

27. Spacing effect grows over time. Experiment Ss learned trivia. Results (Cepeda et al., 2008) gap = 15 weeks Study for 1 hour Study for 1 hour • space Test test delay = 1, 5, 10, or 50 weeks Study for 1 hour Study for 1 hour • mass Test Test Score space mass test delay

28. In many courses, students already space. Example Kids receive spelling words on Monday and take test on Friday. In math class, a unit is spread out over two weeks. Are these gaps sufficient, or does size of spacing gap matter? Experiment Results Longer gaps better (Cepeda et al., 2009) test delay = 168 days Study Session 2 Study Session 1 Test gap 0, 1, 7, 28, 84, 168 days

29. Longest Cognitive Experiment Ever Ss learned French or German vocabulary Ss completed 13 study sessions Spacing Gap = 2, 4, or 8 weeks Test Delay = 1, 2, 3, and 5 years Results on Final Test: Longest Spacing Gap always best (Of course, briefer test delays better than longer test delays.) (Bahrick, Bahrick, Bahrick, & Bahrick, 1993)

30. Educational implications of spacing effect. Teachers should give cumulative exams Exposure to a skill or concept should be distributed over a long period of time. Examples Spelling Typical Weekly list includes 15 new words Better Weekly list includes 10 new words and 5 old words Math Typical Each assignment includes 15 problems of the same kind Better Each assignment includes 5 problems of new kind, 15 from past

31. Spaced practice is one of the largest and most robust findings in memory. Yet only 8 of these 22 cognitive texts mention spacing effect. Anderson (1995). Cognitive Psychology and Its Applications (4th Ed) Ashcraft (2002). Cognition (3rd Ed.) Barsalou (1992). Cognitive Psychology: An Overview for Cognitive Scientists. Benjafield (1992). Cognition. Best (1999). Cognitive Psychology (5th Ed.) Galotti (1999). Cognitive Psychology In and Out of the Laboratory (2nd Ed). Goldstein (2005). Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, … Guenther (1998). Human Cognition. Howard (1983). Cognitive Psychology. Hunt & Ellis (2004). Fundamentals of Cognitive Psychology (7th Ed.) Jahnke & Nowaczyk (1998). Cognition. Kellogg (2003). Cognitive Psychology (2nd Ed.) Matlin (2002). Cognition (6th Ed.) Medin, Ross, & Markman (2005). Cognitive Psychology (4th Ed.). Payne & Wenger (1998). Cognitive Psychology. Reed (1992). Cognition (3rd Ed.). Reisberg (2001). Cognition: Exploring the Science of Mind (2nd Ed.). Robinson-Riegler & Robinson-Riegler (2004) Cognitive Psychology … Solso, MacLin, & MacLin (2005). Cognitive Psychology (7th Ed.). Sternberg (1996). Cognitive Psychology. Wickelgren (1979). Cognitive Psychology. Willingham (2004). Cognition: The Thinking Animal (2nd Ed.).

32. blank

33. Learning Style Students learn better if instructional method matches student’s learning style. Example First, students are classified by style (e.g., visual vs. verbal) Then students receive instruction tailored to their style. Researchers have written hundreds of articles that propose this approach. Consequently, many teachers and schools offer customized instruction. Assessments, customized instructions, teacher training cost many tax dollars. But is there evidence for this?

34. What kind of experiment provides support for tailoring instruction to student’s style? Hypothetical But this does not happen.

35. Conclusions about Learning Style Students have different preferences. Combining multiple approaches can help. Example Text with diagram may be better than either alone. Optimal approach varies by topic. Examples Geometry requires visual instruction. Literature requires verbal instruction. But there is no evidence for “customized instruction.” (Pashler et al., 2008)

36. Parents Of Nasal Learners Demand Odor-Based Curriculum March 15, 2000 – The Onion COLUMBUS, OH–Backed by olfactory-education experts, parents of nasal learners are demanding that U.S. public schools provide odor-based curricula for their academically struggling children. A nasal learner struggles with an odorless textbook.

37. blank

38. Take-Home Story • Educators should advocate for strategies supported by experiments. • Unfortunately, many “education experts” dismiss this idea. • Instead, experts espouse learning methods based on • anecdotal evidence • armchair theories • politically palatable views (all kids have same potential) • By contrast, medical field relies on true experiments.

39. U. S. Memory contest VHS tape Scientific American Frontiers Segment 2 (about 15 min) link not working (?) www.pbs.org/saf/1102/video/watchonline.htm

40. blank

41. mnemonic learning strategy for a specific kind of material ROY G. BIV Stalactites on the ceiling, stalagmites on the ground King Phillip Came Over For Great Spaghetti Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally SOH - CAH - TOA Mnemonics are useful only in very specific cases.

42. peg-word mnemonic Used to learn a list of items in a particular order (e.g., first 10 amendments) Step 1. Learn peg-words. 1-bun 6-sticks 2-shoe 7-heaven 3-tree 8-gate 4-door 9-vine 5-hive 10-hen Step 2. Form bizarre image of peg-word & study item

43. Demo: Close eyes and listen to words. For each words, form interactive image between word and peg word. 1. bun elephant 2. shoe sailboat 3. tree clock 4. door foot 5. hive rainbow 6. sticks telephone 7. heaven radio 8. gate corn 9. vine brain 10. hen bottle

44. Now try to recall words in order 1. bun elephant 2. shoe sailboat 3. tree clock 4. door foot 5. hive rainbow 6. sticks telephone 7. heaven radio 8. gate corn 9. vine brain 10. hen bottle

45. Bill of Rights (Amendments 1 through 10 of the Constitution) 1. freedom of speech, press, religion, assembly 2. bear arms 3. no soldier may stay in house without owner’s consent 4. reasonable search and seizure 5. grand jury; no self-incrimination; no double jeopardy 6. speedy public trial, may confront witness 7. trial by jury 8. no cruel or unusual punishment (or excessive bail) 9. there are other rights besides those listed here 10. states have powers not delegated or prohibited by constitution

46. Cranial Nerves 1 olfactory 2 optic 3 oculomotor 4 trochlear 5 trigeminal 6 abducens 7 facial 8 vestibulo/cochlear 9 glossopharyngeal 10 vagus 11 spinal accessory 12 hypoglossal

47. method of loci - like peg-word method, but cues are pre-learned locations Experiment Ss memorized path through campus with 40 salient locations Ss heard 40 words (13 s each) and formed location-word image Test given next day. Mean Test Score = 34 of 40 in correct serial position (Ross & Lawrence, 1968)

48. Method of Loci attributed to the following legend (recounted by Cicero): The Greek poet Simonides was at a banquet. He stepped outside to talk to messengers, and, while he was outside, the roof of the banquet hall collapsed, killing everybody inside. The mangled corpses could not be identified, but Simonides was able to identify every victim by visualizing where everyone had been sitting.

49. March 3, 2013 – ABC News It was a solemn scene Thursday as U.S. Navy veteran Ron White stood at a black wall in downtown Fort Worth, and wrote in white the full name and rank of each of the 2,200 military members who had died in Afghanistan. White had no list. He had memorized the 2,200 names and ranks, more than 7,000 words. White is a two-time USA Memory Champion who has made memorization his business over the past 22 years. He began working on memorizing the 2,200 names in May 2012, using the loci method. "Essentially, what you do is you memorize a map of your city, your town where you live," White said. "So there's 2,200 service members who paid the ultimate sacrifice. So that means I memorized 2,200 locations in my hometown of Forth Worth, Texas.” The locations included places and sign posts like stop signs, trees, walls, pictures, restaurant booths and restaurant cash registers. He then took each name and turned it into a picture that reminded him of that person, and he visualized a name at each location. "When I was at the wall, I simply stood at the wall and took an 11-hour mental walk around downtown Fort Worth and wrote out the names," White said.

50. Memory contests. Records (as of Feb 2013) EventU.S.World 5 minutes to learn list of random digits 303 333 15 minutes to learn list of random words 120 214 Memorize order of shuffled deck of cards 63 sec 24 sec 15 minutes to memorize poem (1 pt per word) 234 305