Chapter 10: Agriculture

1. Chapter 10: Agriculture The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography

2. Where Did Agriculture Originate? • LDCs are home to 97% of world’s farmers • Recall: Agriculture is a primary-sector economic activity • Origins of agriculture • Agriculture = deliberate modification of Earth’s surface through the cultivation of plants and/or rearing of animals to obtain sustenance. • Cultivate = “to care for” • Crop = any plant cultivated by people • Agriculture originated when humans domesticated plants & animals for their use.

3. Where Did Agriculture Originate? • Hunter & Gatherers • Before agriculture, H & G lived in small groups of about 50 ppl. Men would hunt or fish & women would collect berries, nuts, etc. • Groups would travel frequently. Direction and frequency of travel would depend on mov’t of game & seasonal growth of plants. • Perhaps 250,000 remaining today (0.005% of world’s population). • Invention of agriculture • When it began = unclear; Generated from many hearths • SW Asia thought to be hearth for domestication of largest # of animals important for agriculture (cattle, goats, pigs, sheep). • Scientists do not agree on whether agriculture originated primarily b/c of environmental or cultural factors. • Environmental—Domestication of crops & animals coincides w/ climate change around 10,000 years ago (end of Ice Age) • Cultural—Human behavior responsible for wanting to live in a fixed place.

4. Crop Hearths—Agriculture originated in many hearths. Domestication of some crops can be dated back more than 10,000 years.

5. Animal Hearths—Animal domestication also originated in many hearths. Figure 10-3

6. Where Did Agriculture Originate? • Commercial and Subsistence agriculture • Subsistence = produced mainly for the farm family’s survival • Most common in LDCs • Commercial = produced mainly for sale off the farm • Most common in MDCs • Most widely used map of agricultural regions created by Derwent Whittlesey in 1936. • He identified 11 major agricultural regions, plus an area where agriculture is nonexistent. Divided 11 regions to 5 that are important to MDCs & 6 important to LDCs. • Similarities between agriculture & climate maps are striking

7. In the Middle East & N. Africa, which has a dry climate, pastoral nomadism is the predominant type of agriculture. SE China has warm mid-latitude climate with wet rice dominant whereas NE China has cold mid-latitude climate with intensive subsistence agriculture w/ wet rice not dominant.

9. Major agricultural practices can be divided into subsistence & commercial regions. Subsistence regions—LDCs Shifting cultivation—primarily tropical regions of S. America, Africa, & SE Asia Pastoral nomadism—primarily dry lands of North Africa and Asia. Intensive subsistence, wet rice dominant—large population concentrations of E. & S. Asia Intensive subsistence, crops other than rice dominant—population concentrations of E. and S. Asia where growing rice is difficult.

10. Commercial regions include: (All MDCs except Plantation) Mixed crop & livestock—primarily US Midwest and Central Europe. Dairying—near population clusters in NE US, SE Canada, and NW Europe Grain—North-Central US and Eastern Europe Ranching—Drylands of W US, SE S. America, Australia Mediterranean—Lands surrounding Mediterranean Sea, W. US, & Chile Commercial gardening—SE US & SE Australia Plantation (LDCs)—Tropical regions of Latin America, Africa, & Asia.

11. 5 Features that Distinguish Commercial from Subsistence • Purpose of Farming • LDCs (subsistence)—Produce food for own consumption • MDCs (commercial)—Produce food for sale rather than consumption • % of Farmers in Labor Force • LDCs—50% of workers engaged directly in agriculture • MDCs—5% engaged in agriculture • Use of Machinery • MDCs—A small # of farmers can feed many ppl by relying on machinery • LDCs—Many farmers do work w/ hand tools & animal power • Farm Size • MDCs—Commercial agriculture dominated by handful of large farms • Relationship of Farming to Other Businesses • MDCs—Agribusiness, the family farm is integrated into a large food-production industry. Although farmers are less than 2% of workforce, 20% of US labor works in food production related to agribusiness.

12. In LDCs most people work in agriculture to produce the food they and their families require. In MDCs few people are farmers, and most people buy food w/ money earned by working in factories or offices.

13. Farmers in MDCs have more tractors per hectare, or acre of land than do farmers in LDCs. The machinery makes it possible to farm extensive areas, a practice necessary to pay for the expensive machinery.

14. Where are Agricultural Regions in LDCs? • This section considers the 4 agricultural types characteristic of LDCs—Shifting cultivation, pastoral nomadism, intensive subsistence, & plantation. • Shifting Cultivation • Most prevalent in low-latitude, A-type climates (high temperatures & abundant rainfall) • S. America, Central and West Africa, Southeast Asia • Two features: • Land is cleared by slashing and burning debris (slash-and-burn agriculture) • Land is tended for only a few years at a time until soil is depleted • People who practice this generally live in small villages and grow food on the surrounding land.

15. Shifting Cultivation (LDCs) • The Process of Shifting Cultivation • Villagers designate planting area each year. Before planting, they remove dense vegetation that covers tropical land. • On a windless day, the debris (trees mostly) is burned • The cleared land, known by some as swidden, is prepared by hand w/ help of a hoe (plows and animals are rarely used). • Cleared land can support crops for no more than 3 years normally. Rapid weed growth attributes to this abandonment after a few years. • Villagers may return to the site 6-20 years later to begin the process of clearing the land again.

16. Slashing and burning vegetation. The dense vegetation is chopped down, and the debris is burned in order to provide the soil w/ needed nutrients.

17. Shifting Cultivation (LDCs) • Crops of Shifting Cultivation • Since most families grow for their own needs, their farm appears much more chaotic than do fields in MDCs, where a single crop such as corn or wheat may grow over an extensive area. • Ownership & Use of Land in Shifting Cultivation • Traditionally, land was owned by village, not each resident. • Today, private individuals own land, especially in Latin America. • Shifting cultivation occupies ¼ of world’s land area, a higher % than any other type of agriculture. • However, less than 5% of world’s people engage in shifting cultivation. The practice of moving from one field to another every couple of years requires more land per person than do other types of agriculture.

18. Shifting Cultivation (LDCs) • Future of Shifting Cultivation • Amount of Earth’s surface allocated to tropical rain forests has already been reduced to less than half of its original area. • Compared to other forms of agriculture, shifting cultivation can support only a small population in an area w/o causing environmental damage. • Defenders of shifting cultivation consider it the most environmentally sound approach for the tropics. Practices used in other forms of agriculture, such as fertilizers and pesticides may damage the soil, cause severe erosion, and upset balanced ecosystems. • However, large-scale destruction of rain forests may contribute to global warming. When large numbers of trees are cut, their burning and decay releases carbon dioxide that will build up in the atmosphere. • With the widespread recognition of global warming, LDCs have become pressured to restrict further destruction of rain forests. Bolivia agreed to set aside 3.7 million acres in a forest reserve in exchange for cancellation of $650,000,000 of its debt to developed countries.

19. Deforestation of Amazon tropical rainforest has increased from 7 million acres per year during 1990s to 8 million acres since 2000. Cash crops such as soybeans are replacing forests in Brazil.

20. Pastoral Nomadism (LDCs) • Pastoral nomadism (herding domesticated animals) • Found primarily in arid and semiarid climates: Southwest Asia, North Africa • They are sedentary farmers who cultivate grain in one place • Only about 15 million people are pastoral nomads. They sparsely occupy about 20% of Earth’s land area. • Characteristics of pastoral nomadism • Animals are seldom eaten—They consume grain • Size of herd indicates power & they serve as main security in adverse environmental conditions. • Type of animal depends on the region • Camels favored in North Africa and Southwest Asia. Horses in Central Asia • Movements of Pastoral Nomads • Strong sense of territoriality—goal for each group is to control a large enough area to contain forage (food for animals) and water necessary. • Transhumance practiced—seasonal migration of livestock between mountains and lowland pasture areas.

22. The Future of Pastoral Nomadism • Used to be seen as a practical way of surviving on land that receives too little rain for cultivation of crops. • Today, it’s a declining form of agriculture • Victim of modern technology—B4 transportation and communications inventions, pastoral nomads played important role as carriers of goods and information across the sparsely inhabited dry lands. • Governments force groups to give up pastoral nomadism b/c they want the land for other uses. In some cases, mining and petroleum industries now operate in dry lands formerly occupied by pastoral nomads. • In the future, pastoral nomadism will be confined to areas that cannot be irrigated or that lack valuable raw materials.

23. Intensive Subsistence Agriculture (LDCs) • Found in areas with high population and agricultural densities • Term intensive implies farmers must work intensively to subsist on a parcel of land. Found mainly in East, South, and Southeast Asia • To maximize production, little to no land is wasted. Example: Roads are made narrow to minimize loss of land. • Intensive with wet rice dominant • Term wet rice refers to practice of planting rice on dry land and then moving the seedlings to a flooded field to promote growth. • Wet rice occupies small % of land but is region’s most important source of food. • Successful production of large yields is time-consuming & done mostly by hand. All family members, including children, contribute to the work.

24. Intensive Subsistence Agriculture (LDCs) • Steps for Growing Rice • Farmer prepares field for planting, using a plow drawn by water buffalo or oxen—use of plow & animal plow is one characteristic that distinguishes subsistence from shifting cultivation. • Plowed land is then flooded w/ water, which is collected from rainfall or irrigation. Too much or too little water can damage the crop. • Before planting, dikes and canals are repaired to ensure the right quantity of water in the field. The flooded field is called a sawah, not a paddy • Rice plants grow submerged in water for ¾ of growing period • Since plants are submerged most of the time, wet rice most easily grown on flat lands. • Thus, most cultivation takes place in river valleys and deltas. • Land is used even more intensively in parts of Asia that practice double cropping, obtaining two harvests per year from one field. This involves alternating between wet rice, grown in summer when there’s high precipitation & dry crops (wheat) during the drier winter season.

25. Labor intensive wet rice—Needs to be grown on flat land, so hillsides are terraced to increase the area of production.

26. Rice is most important crop in the large population concentrations of East, South, and Southeast Asia.

27. Intensive Subsistence Agriculture (LDCs) • Intensive Subsistence w/ Wet Rice NOT Dominant • Climate with low precipitation levels in summer or harsh winters are not suitable for growing rice. Agriculture in interior India & NE China is devoted to crops other than rice. • Crops include: oats, corn, cotton, tobacco, & soybeans • In milder regions where wet rice is not dominant, more than one harvest can be obtained some years through skilled use of crop rotation, which is the practice of rotating use of different fields from crop to crop each year to avoid exhausting the soil.

28. Plantation Farming (LDCs) • Plantation farming • Form of commercial agriculture found in tropics and subtropics: Latin America, Africa, and Asia • Typically owned & operated by Europeans or N. Americans. • Products are grown in LDCs but typically are sold to MDCs • Plantation—a large farm that specializes in 1 or 2 cash crops • Important crops = coffee, sugarcane, cotton, rubber, and tobacco • Because plantations are usually situated in sparsely settled locations, they must import workers & provide them w/ food, housing, and social service. • After the Civil War, plantations declined in the US; they were subdivided and either sold to individual farmers or worked by tenant farmers.

29. Plantation worker Workers are harvesting palm fruit here in Indonesia, which will be processed into palm oil. Indonesia is world’s largest palm oil producer.

30. Where are Agricultural Regions in MDCs? • This section will discuss the six main types of commercial agriculture in MDCs. Mixed Crop and Livestock Farming (MDCs) • Common in US west of Appalachians and in much of Europe • Most distinctive characteristic is its integration of crops & livestock. Crops are fed to animals rather than humans so that the livestock manure will improve soil fertility to grow more crops. • Devotes nearly all land to growing crops but derives more than ¾ of income from sale of animal products (beef, milk, eggs). • In US, corn (maize) is most frequently planted in mixed crop & livestock farms b/c it generates higher yields per area than other crops. • Most important region in US, extending from Ohio to the Dakotas with center in Iowa, is called the Corn Belt (half cropland is corn in this area)

31. Mixed crop and livestock farm that grows corn in Iowa

32. Corn (maize production)—US accounts for more than 40% and China nearly 20% of world’s corn production. Outside North America, corn is called maize.

33. Dairy Farming (MDCs) • Most important commercial agriculture practiced on farms near urban areas of NE US, SE Canada, and NW Europe. • Regional Distribution of Dairying • For most of 20th century, world’s milk production was mostly in MDCs • Share of production increased from 26% in 1980 to 51% in 2007 in LDCs • In 21st century, India has surpassed US as leading milk producer • Dairy products must be closer to their market b/c their products are highly perishable. The ring surrounding a city from which milk can be supplied w/o spoiling is known as the milkshed. • Like most commercial farmers, dairy farmers generally sell their milk to wholesalers, who distribute the products to retailers. • Challenges to Dairy Farmers • Labor intensive—Cows must be milked twice a day, thus requiring constant attention throughout the year. • Winter feed—Must feed cows when they’re unable to graze on grass.

34. MDCs have ¼ or world’s population but produce more than ½ of world’s milk. However, production has expanded rapidly in LDCs in recent years.

35. Dairy farmer in Vermont—Dairying is a major type of agriculture in NE US, a region that is w/in the milksheds of several major metropolitan areas.

36. Can you think of a few factors that would contribute to the steady decline in the number of dairy farms since 1970? • Can you think of a few factors that would contribute to the increase in the number of organic farms since 1970?

37. Dairy/Organic Farms • Factors that would contribute to the steady decline in the number of dairy farms: • Increased production of milk • Cows produce higher yields, meaning fewer cows are needed to meet the demand for milk • Increased mechanization • Mechanization/technological changes in the milking process have enabled farmers to increase the size of their dairy herbs. This efficiency has made small farms unprofitable. • Displacement by urbanization • Dairy farmers close to cities where dairy farms traditionally have been located (milk shed) have been displaced by urbanization, leading to a decline in the number of dairy farms overall.

38. Dairy/Organic Farms • Factors that would contribute to the increase in the number of organic farms: • Increasing demand for organic products has made it more profitable and led to a growth in organic farming • Consumers in US seek alternatives to modern agriculture b/c of concerns about the nutrition and healthiness of commercial products. • People in US are better able to afford higher prices for organic stuff. • Better advertising have made organic products more appealing • Small farms competing with large-scale farms (agribusiness) are forced to shift to more profitable agriculture • Small-farm operations cannot compete with the economies of scale achieved by large-farm operations. Small farms must either go out of business or shift to more intensive forms of agriculture or supply specialty food for niche markets that bring higher prices and greater profitability.

39. Economies of scale are achieved by large industries that increase output so much that the average cost to the industry is greatly decreased.

40. Grain Farming (MDCs) • Grain is the seed from various grasses, like wheat, corn, etc. • Commercial grain agriculture is different from mixed crop and livestock farming b/c crops are grown primarily for consumption by humans rather than livestock. • Most important grain crop = wheat • US & Canada account for about half the world’s wheat exports. N. American prairies are labeled the world’s “breadbasket.” The ability to provide food for many people across the world is a major source of economic and political strength for US and Canada. • Large-scale grain production is concentrated in 3 areas: winter-wheat belt (Kansas, Colorado, Oklahoma) where crop is planted in autumn and develops a strong root system that will survive the winter, spring-wheat belt (Dakotas, Montana, south Canada) where winters are too severe, and the Palouse region of Washington State.

41. China and India have passed the US as leading producer of wheat. However, the US remains the leading producer of wheat for commercial sale off the farm.

43. Livestock Ranching • Ranching is the commercial grazing of livestock over an extensive area. • Practiced in MDCs where vegetation is too sparse to support crops. • Cattle ranching expanded in US during 1860s b/c of the demand for beef in East Coast cities. • Cattle ranching declined in importance in 1880s after the US gov’t sold land that used to be open for grazing to farmers. • Ranchers tried to drive out farmers by cutting fences and then illegally erecting their own fences on public land. “Range wars” flared. The farmers most potent weapon was barbed wire, first produced in 1873. • Farmers eventually won the battle, and ranchers were compelled to buy or lease land to accommodate their cattle. • Ranching generates lower income per area of land, although it has lower operating costs. Cattle are still raised on ranches but are frequently sent to fattening farms rather than directly to meat processors.

44. Cattle, sheep, and goats are the three animals most commonly found on ranches. Cattle are found in Western Hemisphere, sheep in Australia, and goats in Central Asia.

46. Poultry (Chicken & Turkey) • The restructuring of agriculture in late 20th century has had important implications for rural land use and distribution of poultry in the United States. • There have been many factors that have increased the demand for poultry in the late 20th century: • Population increase • Health benefits (low fat diets) • Enhanced image of poultry (ease of preparation, appearance) • Availability (growth of poultry-based franchises like Chick Fil-A) • Some groups have ethnic/religious taboos against beef and pork • Falling prices of poultry compared to other meats

47. Poultry (Chicken & Turkey) • Characteristics of the present economic organization of poultry production in the US: • Corporation controls multiple elements of poultry production (feed production-delivery of feed, vertical integration) • Large scale operations (as seen in the number of birds per farm) • Specialized farms (they raise poultry only) • Application of manufacturing process (mass production style/factory like) • Features of present geographic distribution of poultry production in the United States • Regional concentration or clustered in a particular location • Proximity to markets or transportation corridors • Regional concentration in economical depressed areas or areas w/ low wages (attraction of an immigrant work force).

48. Mediterranean Agriculture (MDCs) • Every Mediterranean area borders a sea and most are on west coasts of continents. • Sea winds provide moisture and moderate winter temperatures • Land is very hilly, mountains frequently plunge directly to the sea, leaving very narrow strips of flat land along the coast. • Most crops are grown for human consumption, not for animal feed • Horticulture—the growing of fruits, vegetables, and flowers—and tree crops form the commercial base of Mediterranean farming. • Crops in Mediterranean Region • In lands bordering these regions, olives & grapes are most important cash crops. 2/3 of world’s wine is produced in countries that border the Mediterranean, especially Italy, France, and Spain. • Approximately half the land is devoted to growing cereals, especially wheat for pasta and bread. • Large portion of California is devoted to fruit and vegetable horticulture.

49. Commercial Gardening & Fruit Farming • Predominant type of agriculture in US southeast • Region has long growing season, humid climate, and is accessible to large markets of NYC, Washington, & Philadelphia. • Type of agriculture practiced is called truck farming. • Truck farms grow many of fruits and vegetables that consumers in more developed societies demand (i.e. apples, asparagus, cherries, lettuce, tomatoes). • Truck farms are highly efficient large-scale operations that take full advantage of machines at every stage of the growing process. • Labor costs are kept down by hiring migrant farm workers, some of which are undocumented from Mexico & will work for low wages. • Farms tend to specialize in a few crops, and a handful of farms may dominate national output of some fruits and vegetables.

50. Why Do Farmers Face Economic Difficulties? • Challenges for commercial farmers • The distance from the farm to the market influences the farmer’s choice of crop to plant. • The von Thünen model (1826) • A commercial farmer initially considers which crops to cultivate and which animals to raise based on market location. • In choosing an enterprise, the farmer compares two costs: Cost of the land & the cost of transporting products to market. • He based his general model on spatial arrangement of different crops in his experiences as owner of a large estate in northern Germany. • Model assumed that all land in a study area had similar site characteristics although he recognized that the model could vary according to physical conditions. • Model failed to consider that social customs and gov’t policies influence the attractiveness of plants & animals for a commercial farmer.