Crash Course in AP Test Prep

1. Crash Course in AP Test Prep Chapters 47, 48,50, 51 and 52

2. Chapter 47 • Musculoskeletal systems • Types of Musculoskeletal systems • Creation of Bone • Joints • Muscle Contraction

3. Types of Musculoskeletal systems • Hydrostatic Skeletons- use water pressure inside body wall to move • Earthworms, Jellyfish and squid • Exoskeletons- Rigid outer covering, must be removed for growth to occur • Arthropods • Endoskeleton- inside • Echinoderms and vertebrates

4. Bone • Osteoblasts- form bone • Osterocytes - a mature osteoblast • Osteoclast- remove bone • What is bone made of? • Collagen and hydroxyapatite • Why is the collagen important?

5. Joints • Immovable- sutures that connect bones ie. In skull • Movable • Slightly- between vertebrae • Freely-hinge and ball socket joints- usually found in bodies appendages.

6. Muscle Contraction • Myofibrils and myofilaments • A bands- only myofibrils • I bands- only myofilaments • H bands-over lapping thick and thin • Z line to z line distance between one sacromere

7. Most basic cause of muscle contraction • Myofibrils move because of hydrolysis of ATP • When relaxed bonds ATP • ATP hydrolyzed to form ADP and P- causes activation • Bonds to Myosin binding site on Actin fillament • ADP and P is released ATP binds and returns Myosin head to relaxed state.

8. It’s not that simple • Troponin and Tropomyosin • Calciums Role

9. Chapter 48 • The Digestive System • Types of digestive systems • Mouth and Teeth • Esophagus and Stomach • Small intestine • Liver and gall bladder and pancreas • Large Intestine • Variations of the vertebrate digestive systems • Important Enzymes

10. Types of Digestive Systems • Unicellular organisms lack digestive systems- why? • Invertebrates such as cnidarians have digestive bags or tubes- no specialization • One way digestive tracts- allow for specialization- started with nematodes and became more and more specialized from that point on.

11. Mouth and Teeth • Allow for the breakdown of food. • Some animals lack teeth so they have gizzards with rocks to break food -birds and earthworms. • Types of teeth are based on diet • Saliva is an enzyme that starts digestion of starch

12. Esophagus and Stomach • Esophagus transports food o the stomach by peristalsis • Stomach- holding station involved in the acidic breakdown of food • Containes gastric juices • Protein digestion begins (pepsin) • No significant digestion of fats and carbs occur here

13. Small Intestine • Most digestion occurs here • First part of the small intestine is the duodenum then comes the jejunum and ileum. • Duodenum receives chyme form the stomach, bicarbonate from the pancreas and bile from the liver and gallbladder • Very high surface area villi and microvilli- why important? • Blood carries products of digestion from the intestice to the liver via the hepatic portal vein- except for digested fats

14. Large intestine • Very little digestion and only a small amount of water reabsorption occurs here • Feces are stored here until deffication occurs. • Other animals have cloaca that store digestive remnants as well as reproductive products

15. Variations in vertebrate Digestive systmes • Ruminants- 4 chambered stomach and regurgitate and rechew food. • Herbivores- have much larger cecum - may also eat their own poop

16. Important enzymes • Salivary glands have amylase- breaks down starch and glycogen • Stomach has pepsin- breaks down proteins • Pancreas has lipase for fats, Trypsin for proteins Dnase for DNA and Rnase for RNA • Small Intestine has others that I am not going to ask you about!

17. Other interestinc Stuff • Leptin and Insulin Control of Appetite • Essential Nutrients

18. Chapter 50 temperature, Osmotic Regulation, and the Urinary System • 1. Regulating Body Temperature • 2. Endotherms vs Ectotherms • 3. Types of Osmoregulatore Organs across the phyla • 4.Evolution of the Vertebrate kidney • 5.Nitrogenous Wastes • 6. The Mammalian Kidney • 7. Hormones and Osmoregulatory Functions

19. Mechanisms of Heat Transfer • 1. Radiation- the transfer or heat by electromagnetic radiation- from hotter to colder. Does NOT require direct contact! • 2. Conduction- Direct transfer of heat between two objects in contact • 3. Convection- Transfer of heat by movement of gas or liquid • 4. Evaporation- The amount of energy needed to change from a liquid to a gas phase • What do we know about the heat of vap of water and why is this important?

20. Endotherms vs Ectotherms • Endotherms regulate their body temperature internally • Ectotherms use their environments to regulate their body temperatures

21. Ectotherms • Have Lower metabolism. Need less calories. Why? • Regulate body temperature via environment. • Whales use countercurrent heat exchange- where their arterial blood warms the blood in the veins towards the outside of the body.

22. Endotherms • Have much higher metabolism, and need a lot of calories- why? • Body size and metebolic rate- mouse vs elephant • In mammals our body temp is regulated by the hypothalamus- be able to describe mechanism

23. Endotherms • Have much higher metabolism, and need a lot of calories- why? • Body size and metebolic rate- mouse vs elephant • In mammals our body temp is regulated by the hypothalamus- be able to describe mechanism

24. Osmoregulation across the phyla • Flatworms- tubules called protonephridia- open only out • Anelids- nephridia- open both in and out • Arthropoda- malpighian tubules which are extensions of the digestive tract. Lets very little water our only waste products and feces. • Vertebrates- kidney filters and reabsorbs important nutrients

25. Evolution of the vertebrate kidney • Freshwater fish- must retain electrolytes and keep water out • Do NOT drink water and excreet a large volume of dilute urine • Reabsorb ions across nephron tubules • Actively transport ions across their gills

26. Marine Bony Fish • Water tends to want to leave their bodies because they are hypotonic to their environment • Drink large amounts of seawater

27. Cartilaginous Fish • They do not drink seawater to become isotonic • They reabsorm urea from the nephron tubules to maintain a very high blood urea level. This makes their solute level equal to that of their environment so water no longer wants to move in!

28. Amphibians and Freshwater Reptiles • Produce bery dilut urine and compensate for their loss of Na+ by actively transporting Na+ across their skin from the sorrounding water.

29. Marine Reptiles • They tend to lose water and take in salts • Like marine fish they drink seawater and excrete isotonic urine • Many reptiles eliminate excess salt via salt glands located near the nose or eye

30. Mammals and Birds • Only vertebrates able to produce urine with a higher osmotic concentration then their body fluid • This enables them to retain water. • Degree of concentration depends on the length of the loop of Henle (we will talk about this in about 3 minutes) • Some marine birds cope with excess salt by secreting it from salt glands above the eyes.

31. Types of Nitrogenous Wastes

32. Functions of the Mammalian Kidney • 1. Filtration • 2. Reabsorption • 3.Secretion • 4. Excretion

33. Parts of the human renal system

34. The Nephron in a Kidney

35. Reabsorption of salt and water in the kidney

36. Loop of Henle • 1. Ascending limb is impermeable to water. Thick ascending portion actively transports Na+ and Cl- passibley follows. In the thin ascending loop Na+ and Cl- move out by simple diffusion • 2. The descending limb is permeable to water by not NaCl. Because of the gradient created by the ascending limb a concentration gradient is made causing water to flow out by diffusion • 3. The longer the loop of henle the more interaction between the ascending and descending loop the more water and NaCl are able to be reabsorbed. • 4.Vasa recta reabsorbs NaCl

37. So what makes its way out? • Most NaCl and water is reabsorbed. As well as HCO3 and K+. • H+ and some water is lost in urine . Therefore urine has a slightly acidic pH

38. Hormones Controlling Osmoregulatory functions. • ADH- Stimulates reabsorption of water by the kidneys. • Aldosterone- stimulates distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts to reabsorb Na+ • When blood flow is reduced renin is released, which is then turned into angiotensin1 and then angiotensin 2. This then signals the release of aldosterone • Atrial Natriuretic hormone- promotes the excretion of salt and water

39. Chapter 51 The immune system • The three main lines of defense • Antigens • T Cells • Antibodies in Medical Treatment and Diagnosis • Pathogens

40. Three main lines of Defense • First line of defense- Integumentary system • The second Line of Defense- Nonspecific Immunity. Act to destroy al foreign invaders • The third Line of Defense- Specific Immunity. Specifically identifies and removes cells identified as foreign.

41. Antigens • Stimulate specific Immune Response • Foreign Invaders has antigens on their cell surface (epitopes) • Antibodies recognize specific antigens and attach to them to remove or destroy the invader. • Out immune system acts more quickly on antigens that it has been exposed to previously

42. B Cells • Respond to antigens by secreting antibodies or immunoglobins

43. T cells • Do NOT secrete antibodies by instead directly attack ells that carry the specific antigen. • Use MHC identification to identify the specific type of cell infected, when see what antigen is connected. • Primary cause of transplant rejection

44. Why can’t we get blood transfusions from anyone? • Antibodies and Antigens • Ask me about Rh factor!

45. Cancer Treatment and Monoclonal Antibodies • Can create antibodies that recognize specific antigens on cancer cells. • T-cells can then be used to selectively destroy cancer cells.

46. HIV • Kills T cells anc causes immunosuppression.

47. Chapter 52 The Reproductive System • 1. Types of reproduction • 2.Internal vs External Fertilization • 3.Male Reproductive Organs • 4. Male Reproductive Hormones • 5. Female Reproductive Organs • 6. Hormonal Control of Female Reproductive system • 7. Contraception

48. Types of Reproduction • Asexual • Parthenogensis • Budding • Sexual • Boy/girl • Hermaphroditism • Protogyny and Protodandry

49. Internal Fertilization • Can lead to three strategies for development of offspring • Oviparity- After eggs are fertilized internally they are deposited outside of the body to develop- birds some lizzards etc. • Ovoviviparity- Fertilized eggs are maintained inside of the mothers body but still obtain all of their nutrients from the egg yolk. Many reptiles and some bony fish • Viviparity- The young develop in the mother and get nutrients directly from the mothers blood

50. External Fertilization • Males release sperm into water containing eggs