“Doing” Vocabulary

1. “Doing” Vocabulary Contemporary Approaches to Vocabulary Building in Secondary ELA Classrooms

2. Context * Or a multi-media project, in a tech-enabled learning environment Goal: Designing vocabulary building exercises to facilitate student comprehension and engagement with a famous (and hopefully familiar) text, using contemporary approaches to vocabulary building for secondary English Language Arts (ELA) classrooms Learning context: This lesson will to be taught in an eleventh grade ELA class. It will come toward the beginning of a unit on the Literature of Resilience. This sub-unit will focus on the concept of independence, a facet of resilience. The summative assessment for this segment of the unit will be an expository essay* on the nature of independence, in which students will be expected to integrate in-class readings and personal reflections (and key vocab words).

3. Text For study* The Unanimous Declaration of the Thirteen United States of America When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. That whenever any form of government becomes destructive to these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. * Declaration of Independence (1776)—passage from the first two paragraphs of text

4. Traditional approach—identifying words A traditional approach to vocabulary building would start with identifying the words and concepts in the text with which students might struggle for various reasons. The UnanimousDeclaration of the Thirteen United States of America When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's Godentitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienablerights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. That whenever any form of government becomes destructive to these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light and transientcauses; and accordingly all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same objectevinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security.

5. List of potential words to study 41 is too many! Unanimous Course Dissolve Bands Station Laws of Nature Nature’s God Entitle Impel Truths Self-evident Endowed Creator Unalienable Rights (1) Liberty Pursuit Deriving Just Consent Governed Abolish Principles Effect Prudence Dictate Light Transient Causes Hath Disposed Sufferable Right (2) Accustomed Train Usurpations Invariably Object Evinces Despotism Guards

6. Traditional Approach—Glossary/Assessment I could then assess students’ vocabulary acquisition by quizzing them on the information they have dutifully memorized about the selected words, using (for example) a matching format and a usage section. For instance: Using a traditional approach, I might then create a glossary or vocabulary list for them—or have them create one for themselves—that includes a selection of the underlined words, their parts of speech, and their dictionary definition. For example:

7. What’s wrong with this picture? • In short, contemporary strategies focus on “doing” vocabulary with students, rather than doing it to students. • The trouble with a traditional approach to vocabulary building is that it does not take into account the findings of key research over the past thirty years, which have found that student word-learning is best facilitated not only through direct vocabulary instruction, but also through: • Learning more than the definition of the word • Discussion • Instruction in high-frequency, sophisticated words • Repeated exposure in meaningful contexts • Mastery of word-learning strategies • Scaffolding to prior knowledge through a variety of techniques (e.g., semantic maps, graphic organizers, pre-writing) • Rich, shared experiences • Providing support before, during, and after reading (Allen, 2007)

8. Why study vocabulary anyway? • Limited vocabulary  diminished ability to make meaning  lower reading comprehension  less reading enjoyment  less time spent reading  limited vocabulary  and so on. To Empower Students • Having a name for something enables students “to think about their world, to exercise some control over it, and . . . To communicate their thoughts to others” (Philipott & Graves, 2009, p. 155). • The goal of vocabulary instruction is to produce students “who can read, write, and communicate effectively because they have access to a large reservoir of words” (Allen, 2007, p. 88). • “. . . [L]anguage is power, and those who can use language effectively have an advantage over those who can’t or don’t” (Allen, 2007, p. 102). • “. . .[W]ords help our students find their way in, through, and beyond the boundaries of their world, to the promise inherent in each” (Allen, 2007, p. 104). To Improve Reading Comprehension • Vocabulary knowledge is strong predictor of reading comprehension for both native English speakers and ELL (Philipott & Graves, 2009, p. 156). • To conquer texts used in school requires over 180,000 different words. Students need to have added 50,000 words in reading vocabulary by the end of high school (Philipott & Graves, 2009, p. 157). To Close The Gap • The gap between proficient and struggling readers grows every year (Allen, 2007). • “. . .[T]hose students who do not have a facility for interpreting and using language will become those adults who have been left behind (Allen,2007, p. 104).

9. Keys to word learning success • According to Philipott & Graves (2009), the keys to success in word learning are: • Readingand engaging in authentic discussions and writing assignments related to sophisticated ideas in rich and varied texts • Teaching the most important, individual words • Teaching word-learning strategies, including • External clues: Figuring out a word’s meaning from its context – e.g., the words around it, the sentence before it, the sentence after it • Internal clues: Figuring it out from “word parts”– root word, prefix, suffix • Using the dictionary • Fostering “word consciousness”—an awareness and interest in words and their meanings—by creating a word-rich environment, promoting good word usage, word play, and engaging students in word investigations (p. 175)

10. How do you know which words are important? Importance Is understanding the word important to understanding the selection in which it appears? Discovery Are students able to use their context or structural analysis skills to discover the word’s meaning? Utility How useful is this word outside of the reading selection currently being taught? • (pp. 163-164) Philipott & Graves (2009) suggested that teachers ask these questions to determine the words to study from a particular text:

11. Four Learning Tasks Philipott & Graves (2009) also suggested that there are actually four, different and important tasks involved in vocabulary building at the secondary level: Learning to read words that are new to students in written form, but that they already know in oral form Learning new words for concepts students already know Learning new words that represent new concepts Learning new meanings for words students already know (p. 158) The decision about which tasks are undertaken depends upon students’ prior knowledge of words at hand, how well they need to learn those words, and what they need to do with the words once learned.

12. Beck’s Three tiers • Tier Three • low-frequency words • often limited to specific • domains • Tier Two • high-frequency words • for mature language users • Tier One • most basic words • rarely requiring instruction in school Beck, McKeown, and Kucan (2002) proposed a three-tier sorting process for identifying critical vocabulary words for study. They urged teachers to focus on Tier Two words for maximum value.

13. Tier two words • To identify Tier 2 words worthy of study, Beck et al. (2002) suggested, teachers can ask about each word under consideration: • Conceptual sophistication • Do students already have ways to express the concept? Does the new word offer a more precise, specific, or mature way for students to understand and refer to this concept? Is that concept directly related to the topic of study and other things students have been learning? • Importance • Is understanding the word important to the story or lesson being taught? Are the words integral to the plot or mood? • Utility • Does the word have strong general utility? That is, does it appear frequently across a variety of domains? Will it be of use to students in describing their own experiences? • Number • Is the number of target words on the list sufficient and not overwhelming (or underchallenging)?

14. Narrowing down the list Important concept Important, but may know already Important concept Archaic, low frequency Familiar word in new context Familiar word in new context Important, but may know already Familiar word in new context Can figure out from context, relatively unimportant Can figure out from context, relatively unimportant Can figure out from context, relatively unimportant Important concept Important, but may know already Can figure out from context, relatively unimportant Important concept, but use Laws Archaic, low frequency Important, but may know already Important, but may know already Can figure out from context, relatively unimportant Can figure out from context, relatively unimportant Important concept Can figure out from context, relatively unimportant Important concept Familiar word in new context Can figure out from context, relatively unimportant Can figure out from context, relatively unimportant Important, but may know already Important concept Familiar word in new context Archaic, low frequency Familiar word in new context Can figure out from context, relatively unimportant Unanimous Course Dissolve Bands Station Laws of Nature Nature’s God Entitle Impel Truths Self-evident Endowed Creator Unalienable Rights (1) Liberty Pursuit Deriving Just Consent Governed Abolish Principles Effect Prudence Dictate Light Transient Causes Hath Disposed Sufferable Right (2) Accustomed Train Usurpations Invariably Object Evinces Despotism Guards

15. Teaching strategy—Quick writing • Purpose: to activate prior knowledge (schema) and encourage them to put on their critical “thinking caps” • Now that the best Tier 2 words have been identified, I could use several contemporary vocabulary teaching strategies to facilitate student learning. For example: • Pre-Reading Exercise: Quick Writing • At the start of this day’s lesson, and prior to studying the text, students could be asked to do a “quick writing” entry in their writing journals, responding to the following questions: • What is independence? • How important do you think it is? Why? • Do you think it is a good or bad thing? Why? • Describe two examples of independence in your life.

16. Teaching strategy—think aloud • Purpose: To demonstrate critical thinking and textual analysis skills that are likely more advanced than students’ current level of ability—thereby expanding their “zone of proximal development” (Vacca et al., 2011) • After the Quick Write, I could use a “think aloud” teaching strategy to model for students how to read the text in detail and think through how to engage with challenging texts and understand unfamiliar words (Vacca, Vacca, & Mraz, 2011). • Think Aloud • To do the ‘think aloud,” I could utilize the “talking to the text” technique (below) or other SQ3R types of active reading techniques in modeling and working together with the students. • Predict: Scan the text, skimming through it quickly to get a sense of how it is organized. Predict what the text might be about, what the main ideas might be. • Question:Articulate questions about the material, vocabulary, and the subject matter, looking forward to reading the materials to get those questions answered (and confirm my predictions). • Clarify: While reading the text, seek clarification regarding the meaning of the ideas expressed and words used. Ask clarifying questions, and identify additional information that is needed in order to deepen understanding. • Summarize: Once reading is concluded, summarize main points in our own words (orally, in writing, and/or with visual imagery) to solidify understanding. Review the summaries against the text to ensure we have recalled the main points.

17. Teaching Strategy--SEMANTIC MAP Definition State of being free; power to act as one chooses; a right or privilege (origin: L liber, free) Types Freedom from oppression Freedom from incarceration Freedom of choice Freedom of speech Freedom from enslavement Free will Examples Huck Finn Holden Caulfield e.e. cummings “Invictus” LIBERTY Nonexamples Count of Monte Cristo Anne Frank Nelson Mandela (in jail) Elie Wiesel (Night) Mandatory schooling Uses Patriotic Human rights Incarceration Name of car (Jeep) Sailor’s leave from ship • (Philipott & Graves, 2009, pp. 167-168) • Purpose: To connect new concepts with prior knowledge and increase comprehension of new and known words Semantic maps can also be used as a pre-reading exercise, as well as during or after reading a text. A pre-reading example:

18. Teaching Strategy--Graphic Organizer Target Word: Rights What I Know I Associate the Word With Structural Analysis Prediction for Meaning Information From Context Target Word Definition • (pp. 93-94) • Purpose: To activate prior knowledge and match the ways students will need to know the word in order to be successful in their reading and discussion Allen (2007) also suggested that students can learn words through the use of graphic organizers. For example:

19. TEACHING STRATEGY—Knowing chart • Purpose: To activate and inventory prior knowledge (student perspective) and inventory current comprehension levels and potential scaffolding needs (teacher perspective) • Another pre/post reading strategy could be to survey students’ level of familiarity with the Tier 2 words to be studied. Allen (2007) suggested that there are four stages to “knowing” a word: • Have never seen or heard the word • Have seen or heard the word but don’t know what it means • Have some knowledge of word and can use it in limited situations • Know the word’s multiple meanings, multiple uses, and forms (pp. 91-92) KNOWING CHART I could give students a list of the selected words and ask them to write each of them in the quadrant that best expresses their current level of knowing—a chart similar to a KWL inventory.

20. Summary • In sum, while most agree that direct vocabulary instruction is important to building students’ reading comprehension and critical thinking skills, contemporary approaches focus on • Selecting the best words for study (Tier 2) • Supporting vocabulary building through various teaching strategies for before, during, and after reading, including quick writing, semantic maps, graphic organizers, and knowing charts. All are designed to empower students to use language to their advantage, improve textual literacy, and close the gap between proficient and struggling readers.

21. References Allen, J. (2007). Mastering the art of effective vocabulary instruction. In K. Beers, R.E. Probst, & L. Rief (Eds.), Adolescent literacy: Turning promise into practice(pp. 8-104). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Beck, I.L, McKeown, M.G., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Philipott, R., & Graves, M.F. (2009). Fostering comprehension in English classes: Beyond the basics. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Vacca, R.T., Vacca, J.L, & Mraz, M. (2011). Content area reading: Literacy and learning across the curriculum (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.