RUSSIA AND JAPAN: INDUSTRIALIZATION OUTSIDE OF THE WEST

1. RUSSIA AND JAPAN: INDUSTRIALIZATION OUTSIDE OF THE WEST 1850 – 1914

2. OVERVIEW • Russia and Japan • Managed to avoid Western dominance • Industrialize to achieve economic autonomy. • Japan and Russia Compared • Proved to be the most flexible politically • Strain of industrialization produced a series of revolutions in Russia • As late industrializing nations • There were substantial similarities between Russia and Japan. • Both nations had prior experience with cultural imitation • Japan from China • Russia from Byzantium and the West. • Both had achieved more effective central governments during the 17th and 18th centuries. • As both countries industrialized, they came into conflict over territorial ambitions in Asia.

3. MAPPING RUSSIA

4. RUSSIA BEFORE REFORM • Russian leaders in the 18th and early 19th centuries • Isolate Russia from European revolution, Napoleon; completed shift to conservatism • Tsar Alexander I sponsored Holy Alliance, linked conservative monarchies together • Russian Intellectuals (Intelligentsia) • Remained connected to western European trends • This connection that worried the elite. • 1825 and After • The Decembrist uprising • Western-oriented military officers attempted a coup • Defeated by Imperial forces and members hung • Tsar Nicholas I • Turned to repressive conservatism • Russia also lacked substantial middle or artisan classes • Both helped Russia avoid mid-19th century revolutions. • Official Nationality, Orthodoxy, Autocracy: Formal name to Nicholas’ policies • The tsar suppressed Polish nationalism in 1831 and demanded assimilation of minorities • Insisted on a traditional church and approach to politics especially autocracy • Pressed southward against the Ottoman Empire. • Russia supported nationalist movements in the Balkans as a means of weakening the Turks.

5. ECONOMIC, SOCIAL PROBLEMS • The reality of Russia’s position • Economy remained primarily agrarian • Fell behind the West in terms of production and trade • To maintain the profitability of grain exports • Tighter labor obligations were imposed on the peasantry • Tendency to export grain to raise money left many hungry • The Crimean War, 1854-1856 • Demonstrated how far Russia had fallen behind the West • British, French forces drove the Russians from the Crimea • Loss convinced Tsar Alexander II that reform was needed

6. IMAGINING THE CRIMEAN WAR

7. EMANCIPATION OF RUSSIAN SERFS • The Peasant Problem • In order to establish a more vigorous economy • Some attempt had to be made to resolve the peasant crisis. • Belief that a freer labor force could increase profitability. • Western criticism of Russian social injustice also stung Russian sensibilities. • Series of minor peasant rebellions in 1850s stimulated the movement for reform. • Tsar Alexander II emancipated the serfs in 1861 • The freed serfs got most of the land • Aristocracy retained political and economic power • Serfs remained tied to their villages • Until they could pay for the land they received. • Redemption payments, taxes kept peasants in poverty • The emancipation produced a larger urban labor force • But failed to stimulate agricultural production • Slow pace of change engendered social dissatisfaction • Led to regional peasant uprisings, peasant distrust

8. RUSSIAN SERFDOM

9. REFORMS AND EARLY INDUSTRIALIZATION • Alexander II carried out other reforms • Issued new law codes, established regional councils (zemstvoes) for input on local decisions • Began military reforms • Literacy spread more widely in society with the rise of a mass market in popular literary forms • Women gained power slightly through greater access to education • Somewhat loosened patriarchal authority • Industrialization and the State • Russia lacked a substantial middle class: state handled capital formation, investment • Russia created a substantial railroad network in the 1870s • Better transportation permitted more efficient use of Russia's abundant natural resources • The railroad also facilitated shipment of grain to the West, which in turn helped finance industrialization. • 1880s – 1910s and the Results of Industrialization • Modern factories had begun to develop in major Russian cities • Count Sergei Witte, minister of finance from 1892 to 1903, enacted high tariffs to protect new industries. • Witte also encouraged Western investment in Russian industrialization. • As a result, nearly one half of Russia's industrial businesses were foreign-owned. • By 1900, Russia ranked fourth in steel production and second in petroleum production. • Russian factories were typically enormous but technologically inferior. • Agriculture also lagged behind Western standards of productivity. • The masses of Russian citizens were only slightly affected by industrialization. • Military reforms did not substantially alter the concept of peasant conscripts serving aristocratic landlords. • Russian industrialization produce a substantial middle class. Zemstvo Stamp

10. Russian Foreign Policy • Post-1855 • Undo impact of Crimean War and conquer Ottoman Empire • Obtain Constantinople as outlet to the Mediterranean • Expand Russia’s influence in Asia • Expand Russian influence amongst Balkan peoples • Pan-Slavism and Slavophiles • Ideologies that portrayed Russia as leader of all Slavs • Goal was to liberate all Slavs, unite them under Russian rule • Sought to unite Slavs under Russian tsar, common state • Saw Russian culture as superior: anti-westernizers • Led to Russification in Russia and conflict with Germany, Russia • Alliance with France in 1894 and later with England • Rise of Germany scared Russia who made common cause with France • Similar fears eventually caused Russia and UK to bury differences • Russo-Japanese War 1904 – 1905 • Russian military expansion came to an end in 1904 • Japan and Russia came into conflict over expansion in northern China. • The Japanese quickly defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War • Military defeat unleashed all of the dissenting forces in Russia.

11. RUSSIAN EXPANSION

12. ROAD TO REVOLUTION • During, after the 1880s, Russia became politically, socially unstable • Ethnic minorities began to agitate for national recognition after the 1860s. • Recurrent famines produced peasant unrest. • Intellectual protest began • Business and professional people sought further liberal reforms • Radical intelligentsia demanded revolution • Intellectual radicalism shaded off into terrorism and anarchism as a way to restructure society • Initially, Russian radicals sought to spread their message among the peasants • But they found the masses unreceptive • Anarchists fell back on political assassination to unseat the government • Alexander II was assassinated in 1881: his successors imposed repressive policies to dampen unrest. • Russian Marxism • In the 1890s, intellectuals picked up Marxism from the West as a means of organizing the revolution. • Lenin introduced innovations in Marxism to accommodate the reality of Russian society • Lenin's organization called for small disciplined cells of Marxists to organize the revolution. • Lenin's approach was accepted by the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Marxists. • Radicalism spread rapidly among urban workers, who formed unions and engaged in strikes. • The Russian Government • Faced with mass protests in cities and countryside state clamped down on reform • Created a secret police to spy on, infiltrate radical organizations • Began exiling malcontents to Siberia

13. RUSSIAN RADICALISM Lenin, Engels, Marx From Marxism to Bolshevism Bakunin: Anarchism Russian Social Revolutionaries (Agrarian Socialists) From Narodniki to Nihilists

14. The Capitalist System In Russia According To The Marxists • The Tsar, Nobles • The Church • The Military and Police • The Rich Bourgeoisie • The Peasants, Workers

15. RUSSIAN REVOLUTION OF 1905 • The Russian Revolution of 1905 • Began when soldiers mistakenly opened fire on pro-tsarist demonstration • Soldiers, sailors mutinied at end of Russo-Japanese War • Urban workers produced widespread strikes • Peasants revolts erupted across Russia. • After repression failed, tsar's government offered reforms. • Duma (national parliament) created; multi-party system legalized • Constitution rewritten • Minister Stolypin Enacts Reforms • Offered lighter burdens to the peasantry • Offered peasants a place in village councils • Peasant rebellions did die out • Some peasants began to accumulate substantial land • The reforms were rapidly undone. • Tsar Nicholas II withdrew concessions to workers • New rounds of strikes followed • Duma rapidly became a political nonentity.

16. EASTERN EUROPE • 1750 • Split between Ottomans, Austria, Poland • Had largely missed Reformation, Renaissance, changes • To 1914 • Poland has disappeared • Three partitions • Russia, Austria and Prussia each received lands • Shared a common goal never to allow a Polish state to arise again • Ottomans expelled from Europe • After series of wars, revolts ended in two large Balkans wars in 1912 • Except for small part of Thrace, Turks expelled from Europe • Many Muslims (converted Slavs, Greeks) remained as did large Turkish populations • Many new nations emerged in the Balkans • Eastern Europe was a patchwork quilt of nationalities • Rumania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Serbia included large minorities • Replicated Russian patterns of political autocracy • Many did establish parliaments put politics was violent, brutal • Most eastern European nations abolished serfdom in 1848 • Industrialization was less thorough and many traditional Ottoman patterns remained • Landlords continued to wield economic and political power • Most energy, money spent on building nations, supporting large militaries • Slavic nations enjoyed an era of great cultural productivity • Diplomatically allied with Russia or Germany/Austria

17. ETHNIC MAPS OF EASTERN EUROPE

18. MAPPING THE JAPANESE EMPIRE, 1914

19. JAPAN: CHANGE WITHOUT REVOLUTION • The Late Tokugawa Shogunate • Utilitzed a central bureaucracy • Combined with alliances to feudal magnates • Government was chronically short of funds • Due to limited income from taxes • Also due to high payments made to feudal lords for their loyalty • Shortages of income led to reform movements • This weakened shogunate and made it vulnerable to external threats • Government and Society • The political alliance between the bureaucracy and the samurai worked well • Growth of neo-Confucianism made Japanese life more secular • Also precluded a religious opposition to change • Literacy rates in Japan were much higher than in the West • The national school emphasized essentially Japanese culture • Dutch Studies school represented attempts to learn Western science, technology • The Japanese economy expanded on the basis of commercial growth • Manufacturing began to extend into countryside producing some rural protests

20. CHALLENGE TO ISOLATION • 1853 • American commodore Matthew Perry arrived • Demanded that Japan be opened to trade • 1856 • Japan was forced to receive Western consuls • Forced to open ports to foreign trade. • Shogun faced immediate opposition • Daimyos insisted on maintaining isolation • Shogun and the daimyos both made appeals to the emperor • Emperor began to emerge as a more powerful figure. • Meiji Restoration • Some among the samurai saw an opportunity to unseat the shogun • In 1860s samurai armed with Western weapons defeated shogun's army • In 1868, certain samurai restored imperial rule under Meiji Emperor

21. IMAGINING OPENING JAPAN

22. MEIJI STATE • The Meiji government abolished feudalism • Replaced the daimyo states with regional prefectures • Government sent samurai abroad to study political, economic organization • Foreign observations were used to restructure the state • Government abolished payments to samurai • Paid samurai with government bonds but some samurai fell into poverty • Conscription provided a new army • Others found avenues of employment in the government and business. • 1884 • Government created a new nobility to staff a House of Peers • Civil-service examinations were utilized to open the bureaucracy to men of talent. • 1889 constitution • Recognized the supremacy of the emperor • But gave limited powers to an elected lower house of representatives within the Diet. • The new constitution was based on German models. • Voting rights were determined by property qualifications • Five percent of the population to cast ballots • The form of government gave great authority to wealthy businessmen and nobles • Political parties developed • A small oligarchy continued to dominate the government into the 20th century • Inclusion of businessmen among political elite was major difference from Russian model of reform

23. JAPAN’S INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION • The influence of the army and navy • Became very influential in society • Many reforms were enacted to modernize the armed forces • Modernization necessary for military reasons • Foundations for industrialization • An internal infrastructure was created • Guilds and internal tariffs were abolished • Clear title to land was granted to individuals • Government Involvement • Lack of capital dictated direct government involvement in the stages of industrialization. • Japan established the Ministry of Industry in 1870 to oversee economic development • The government built model factories to provide experience with new technology • Education was extended as a means of developing a work force • Private enterprise soon joined government initiatives, particularly in textiles • Industrial combines or zaibatsus served to accumulate capital for major investment. • Results • Japan's careful management of industrialization limited foreign involvement. • Japan continued to depend on the importation of equipment and raw materials from the West. • Rapid growth depended on existence of cheap supply of labor often drawn from poorly paid women. • More than Russia, Japan's industrialization depended on selling manufactured goods abroad.

24. EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIALIZATION • Social change led to rapid population growth • Strained Japanese resources • But provided a ready supply of cheap labor. • As industrialization progressed, population growth dropped off. • Patriarchal households remained the norm • Divorce rates indicated increasing instability within family life. • The education system stressed science and loyalty to the emperor • Westernization? • Western culture arrived along with models of state and industrialization. • Shintoism as an expression of indigenous culture gained new popularity. • Foreign Policy • Japan entered the race for colonial domination. • The need to employ the new army • Search for raw materials • Efforts to prevent Western encroachment • All contributed to Japanese imperialism after 1890 • Japan annexed the Ryuku Islands • Japan won easy victories over China in 1895 and over Russia in 1904. • The victories yielded Japan some territories in northern China • In 1910, Japan annexed Korea

25. STATISTICS OF CHANGE

26. IMAGES OF JAPANESE INDUSTRIALIZATION, WESTERNIZATION

27. STRAINS OF MODERNIZATION • Industrialization and successful imperialism had costs • Industrialization upended older traditions, social classes • Change is not accepted easily • Imperialism demanded a strong industrial base • War industries tie up money in producing goods which have no benefit • Money spent on war could be invested elsewhere • Japan made the decision to be a great power and that meant arming • Unions, strikes arose in Japan and labor politics became part of industry • Carefully contrived political balance became unwieldy • Ministries were forced to call more frequent elections • Few working majorities in the Diet • Factions emerged in the Diet and old timers dominated proceedings • Rise of Nationalism • Conservatives appalled at trend to imitate the West. • Intellectuals bemoaned loss of an authentic Japanese identity • Both saw a Japan that was neither traditional nor Western. • Leaders urged loyalty to the emperor and the nation. • Nationalism became a strong force in Japanese politics.

28. RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR

29. COMPARING CHINA AND JAPAN • Comparisons in 1800 • Similarities in 1800 • Both had a Confucian culture, adopted a policy of relative isolation from contacts • Both lagged behind west scientifically, industrially; forcibly opened by the West about the same time • Differences • China surpassed Japan in development • Chinese Confucian leadership was stronger, more developed; government was secular, bureaucratic • Chinese centralized government had no feudal lords to impeded or distract it • China had a rich tradition of innovation and scientific discoveries • Differences Determined Outcome of Contact • So why did Japan succeed? • China lacked flexibility: tried to squash or control innovation • Japan knew benefits of innovation; had a strong autonomous mercantile tradition • Japan’s feudalism produced a dedicated militaristic elite, limited centralization • China hampered by rapid population growth which consumed energy, resources • Japan was island nation open to maritime contacts, influences: learned from Chinese mistakes • Japanese government suffered no breakdown of authority even during Meiji Restoration • Or Did China fail? • Chinese government less efficient, less popular as dynasty was in decline; intellectual life stifled • West fixated on China first as it was a greater prize • Western contacts only worsened internal situation and made reform, control difficult • Sino-Japanese War 1894 – 1895 proved Japan learned its lessons from the West

30. GLOBAL CONNECTIONS • Russia's already established role in the world expanded in the 19th century, as its cultural, diplomatic, and military power came to be felt in Europe, the Ottoman Empire, and Asia. • Japan's role was newer, as it emerged from isolation to develop an increasingly powerful economy and to expand its influence in the western Pacific. Some nations in the West feared the yellow peril represented by Japan's emergence as an international power. • The addition of Russia, Japan, and the United States to the world diplomatic picture increased competition. Colonial acquisitions by the new powers heightened the competitive atmosphere, particularly in the Far East.

31. IDENTIFICATIONS • HOLY ALLIANCE • DECEMBRIST UPRISINGS • CRIMEAN WAR • EMANCIPATION OF THE SERFS • ZEMSTVOES • TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILROAD • INTELLIGENTSIA • ANARCHISTS • BOLSHEVIKS • RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR • DUMA • STOLYPIN REFORMS • KULAKS • TERAKOYA • DUTCH STUDIES • ZAIBATSU • DIET • SINO-JAPANESE WAR • YELLOW PERIL

32. WHO AM I? • NICHOLAS I • ALEXANDER II • SERGEI WITTE • V. I. LENIN • MATTHEW PERRY • MEIJI EMPEROR