Brain imaging

1. Brain imaging Take a look inside!

2. NEUROIMAGING • Neuroimagingis the capture of detailed images of the living intact brain as people engage in different mental processes or make behavioural responses. • The various techniques can be divided into 2 general categories: • Structural – scanning techniques that show brain structure and anatomy (CT, standard MRI). Typically show cross sections of brain. • Funtional– scanning techniques that provide views of a particular aspect/s of brain function by showing the brain “at work”. They also provide information about brain structure. (PET, SPECT and fMRI)

3. Electrical Stimulation - ESB • Involves using an electrode to deliver a precisely regulated electric current to the brain, thereby stimulating a specific area of the brain • If electrical stimulation of a specific brain area initiates a behavioural response, then that specific area of the brain controls or is involved in that response • Extremely invasive – usually only conducted when other surgery is already necessary • It may stimulate a response or disrupt brain functioning so impairing a response.

4. PENFIELD’S Studies • Early Direct Brain Stimulation studies conducted by US neurosurgeon Wilder Penfield in the 1940s to 1960s mapped the functions of various parts of the cerebral cortex with numbered tags. • This was done as part of surgery to treat epilepsy. Patient was conscious during the procedure where the area of the cortex thought to specifically be the source of the epileptic seizures for last resort patients who experienced life-threatening seizures.

5. Penfield’s studies • Patients’ brain was stimulated with an electrode and then asked to report their experiences. • E.g. Occipital lobe stimulation generated patients reporting seeing flickering lights, spots, colours, stars and other visual images. • Auditory cortex stimulation – patients reported “hearing” doorbells, engines and a range of sounds. • Primary somatosensory cortex stimulation – patients reported “feeling” a tingling sensation in their cheek, hand, leg and other body parts. • Primary motor cortex stimulation – patients responded by moving specific body parts. This led to mapping the motor cortex.

6. Some cortex sites generated “experiential responses” such as patient vividly recalling past events not considered for years. • Data from hundreds of patients was pooled to map cortical areas and their functions. The map has since been confirmed by other researchers. • Ojemann and Mateer (1979)

7. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation TMS • Delivers a magnetic field pulse through the skull stimulating the neurons closest to the point of entry • Only effects neurons to a depth of 2 – 3 centimeters\ • Good for establishing how different brain regions control different functions • Allows for simulated brain damage • Long term effects of repeated exposure are unclear • Side effects can include localised pain or headache Non invasive, no substances or anaesthetic required

8. TMS used for.. • Patients who have had a stroke, suffered a brain injury, or spinal injury • Can be used for pre-surgical assessment of patients with brain tumours and neural diseases, Parkinson’s, motor neuron disease and MS. • LIMITATIONS • Only affects the part of the brain directly below the skull

9. Computerised axial tomography (CAT) Scan • A computer enhanced X-ray of a slice (cross-section) of the brain created from X-rays taken from different angles. • CT is extremely useful for identifying the precise location and extent of damage to or abnormalities in various brain structures or areas. A CT scan can reveal the effects of strokes, tumors, injuries and other brain disorders • It does not provide information about the activity of the brain

10. Advantages & Limitations • Advantages: non invasive, looks at live intact brains without damage • X-rays relatively harmless, minimal risk • Can precisely locate extent of damage or anomalies • Can identify physical changes in the brain • Inexpensive Limitation: shows structure only not function & activity

11. POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY (PET) • Prior to the scan being taken, the person is given a sugar-like substance that contains a harmless radioactive element. When this substance enters the bloodstream it travels to the brain. As particular parts of the brain are activated, the substance emits radiation which is detected the PET scanner. • Great for examining brain function when performing different tasks • As it involves radioactive element regular use is to be avoided

12. PET cont... • Uses a colour code to indicate levels of activity Violet, blue, green, yellow, red • Eg if a person is listening to someone talking during the PET procedure, the areas involved with speech production would be activated and highlighted in red and yellow – ieWernike’s area

13. Advantages & Limitations ADVANTAGES: Highly effective in identifying brain abnormalities Eg Brain tumours usually very active Brain functioning & changes in brain can be identified LIMITATIONS: Researchers cannot determine whether an active brain area is actually involved in the mental process or behaviour under investigation. Radioactive dye decays rapidly – can only be used for short tasks 40sec interval between scans, each scan lasts only 30 secs.

14. Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) • Similar to PET • Radioactive tracer lasts longer • Not as detailed as PET • Can be combined with CT images to increase resolution • Much cheaper than PET

15. Advantages and Limitations • Advantages: indicates function, longer lasting, longer tasks can be performed. • Accurately pinpoints location of abnormality when combined with a CAT scan • Disadvantages: not as clear or detailed as PET images

16. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) • MRI uses a similar technique to the CAT scan, but instead of using an X-ray, harmless radio frequencies are used to vibrate atoms in the neurons of the brain • The amount of vibration is detected and analysed by a computer • MRI can be used to detect and display extremely small changes in the brain. For example, MRI can more clearly distinguish between braincells that are cancerous and those that are noncancerous also tissue degeneration & blood clots • shows only brain structure not function

17. Advantages & Limitations • ADVANTAGES • Enables more precision in the study of live brains • Non-invasive and harmless • More detailed than CT, almost photographic in quality • Does not use radio-active substances DISADVANTAGES • Cannot be used with people who have internal metal devices eg pace makers or pins in bones • Shows only structure (anatomy) not function

18. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) • The technique is based on the standard MRI, and measures subtle changes in blood–oxygen levels in the functioning brain. • When an area of the brain is active, there is increased blood flow to that area, as more oxygen is required by the active, functioning neurons • Colour variations indicate neural activity • 3D image available from scans

19. Advantages & Limitations ADVANTAGES • Takes numerous images in rapid succession, therefore can detect changes from moment to moment. • More detailed and precise than all other scans • 3D virtual reality imaging possible • Detailed images of the functioning brain while performing tasks • Colour coding makes it easy to interpret. DISADVANTAGES • Very expensive • Limited access to fMRI

20. X-RAY CAT

21. MRI

22. F-MRI

23. PET

24. ESB

25. Ethics in research No, you cant just mash peoples brains and call it research!

26. Lobotomy

28. Lobotomy • Steel rod inserted through the eye socket • Steel rod tapped through with a hammer then moved laterally to destroy brain tissue • Forward area of Frontal lobes destroyed • Used to treat everything from depression to schizophrenia and ADHD

29. Ethics – do the right thing! • Standards that guide individuals to identify good, desirable, or acceptable conduct • Australian Psychological society has a code of ethics • Also a National statement on ethical conduct on human research (2007)

30. Ethics – do the right thing! • Integrity – did this procedure/research genuinely show the potential to advance our understanding of the brain? • Respect for persons – were the welfare, rights, cultural heritage etc of the participants respected? • Beneficence – did the benefits of this procedure outweigh the potential risks? • Justification – is the use of this particular participant justified, do they represent the norm, will others benefit from the generalisation of these results.

31. Participants Rights • Informed consent • Withdrawal rights • Deception? • Debriefing • Confidentiality Do not talk about fight club!

32. Ethics comities – HREC (Human research Ethics Committee) • Ensure the study designed to meet national guidelines • Ensure researchers adequately qualified • Monitor progress • Handle complaints • Ensure accountability of researcher

33. Space monkey

34. Why use animals in research? • Some studies cannot be conducted on humans due to the risk of psychological or physical harm • Bodily systems and nervous system very similar in humans and many animals • Practical advantages – aging, breeding, • Animal behaviour can be controlled easily, environment can be controlled, thus extraneous variables are easily controlled • Expectations are not a factor in most animal research

35. Problems with using animals? • Generalising from animals to humans is not always possible • Harm to the animal; is it necessary? • All research covered by the Australian code of practice for the use of animals for scientific purposes • Justification – potential benefits must outweigh harm • Pain/distress only if no other alternative • Surgery must be with anaesthetic • Termination must be quick and painless

36. Things to do • Learning activities 4.24, 4.26, 4.27, 4.30 • True/False Quiz – pg 264 • Chapter 4 Test – pg 265 • StudyOn – Mind, Brain & Body, #s 5, 6, 7, 8