Foreign Policy

1. Foreign Policy

2. Making Foreign Policy • Foreign policies are the strategies governments use to guide their actions in the international arena to support their national interest and their national security. • Spell out the objectives state leaders have decided to pursue in a given relationship or situation • Foreign policy process: How policies are arrived at and implemented

3. Models of Decision Making • Rational model • Decision makers set goals, evaluate their relative importance, calculate the costs and benefits of each possible course of action, and then choose the one with the highest benefits and lowest costs. • Role of uncertainty • Accepting of risk versus averse to risk

4. Figure 4.1

5. Models of Decision Making • Organizational process model • Foreign policy makers generally skip the labor-intensive process of identifying goals and alternative actions, relying instead for most decisions on standardized responses or standard operating procedures (sop). • Government bargaining (bureaucratic) model • Foreign policy decisions result from the bargaining process among various government agencies with somewhat divergent interests in the outcome.

6. Individual Decision Makers • Study of individual decision making revolves around the question of rationality. • To what extent are national leaders (or citizens) able to make rational decisions in the national interest and thus conform to the realist view of IR? • Difficulties of oversimplification • Individual decision makers have differing values and beliefs and have unique personalities • idiosyncrasies

7. Beyond individual idiosyncrasies, individual decision making diverges from the rational model in at least three systematic ways: Decision makers suffer from misperceptions and selective perceptions when they compile information on the likely consequences of their choices. The rationality of individual cost-benefit calculations is undermined by emotions that decision makers feel while thinking about the consequences of their actions (affective bias). Cognitive biases are systematic distortions of rational calculations based not on emotional feelings but simply on the limitations of the human brain in making choices. Justification of effort Wishful thinking Mirror image Projection Historical analogies Individual Decision Makers

8. Individual Decision Makers • Two specific modifications of the rational model of decision making have been proposed to accommodate psychological realities. • Bounded rationality • Takes into account the costs of seeking and processing information • Optimizing • Satisficing • Prospect theory • Decision makes go through two phases: editing phase and the evaluation phase • Holds that evaluations take place by comparison with a reference point, which is often the status quo but might be some past or expected situation

9. Group Psychology • Group dynamics can be a promoter of state interests but they can also introduce new sources of irrationality into the decision-making process. • Groupthink • Refers to the tendency for groups to reach decisions without accurately assessing their consequences, because individual members tend to go along with ideas they think the others support • Groups tend to be overly optimistic about the chances of success and are thus more willing to take risks. • Iran-Contra scandal

10. Figure 4.3

11. Figure 4.2

12. Crisis Management • Crises are foreign policy situations in which outcomes are very important and time frames are compressed. • Time constraints • Groupthink • Psychological stress

13. Domestic Politics • Foreign policy is shaped not only by the internal dynamics of individual and group decision making but also by the states and societies within which decision makers operate.

14. Bureaucracies • Diplomats • Virtually all states maintain a diplomatic corps, or foreign service, of diplomats in embassies in foreign capitals • Political appointees • Career diplomats • Tension common between state leaders and foreign policy bureaucrats • Interagency tensions • Bureaucratic rivalry as an influence on foreign policy challenges the notion of states as unitary actors in the international system.

15. Interest Groups • Coalitions of people who share a common interest in the outcome of some political issue and who organize themselves to try to influence the outcome • Lobbying • The process of talking with legislators or officials to influence their decisions on some set of issues. • Three important elements: • Ability to gain a hearing with busy officials • Ability to present cogent arguments for one’s case • Ability to trade favors in return for positive action on an issue

16. The Military Industrial Complex • Huge interlocking network of governmental agencies, industrial corporations, and research institutes, working together to supply a nation’s military forces • Response to the growing importance of technology • Encompasses a variety of constituencies, each of which has an interest in military spending • Corporations, military officers, universities, and scientific institutes that receive military research contracts • Revolving door • PACS from the military industry

17. Public Opinion • Range of views on foreign policy issues held by the citizens of a state • Has a greater influence on foreign policy in democracies than in authoritarian governments • Legitimacy • Propaganda • Journalists as gatekeepers

18. Public Opinion • In democracies, public opinion generally has less effect on foreign policy than on domestic policy. • Attentive public • Foreign policy elite • Rally ’round the flag syndrome • Diversionary foreign policy

19. Figure 4.4

20. Legislatures • Conduit through which interest groups and public opinion can wield influence • Presidential systems; separate elections • Legislatures play a direct role in making foreign policy • Different rules apply, however, to the use of military force • Rally ’round the flag • May challenge the president if they have power of the “purse” • Parliamentary systems; political parties are dominant • Often parliamentary executives do not need to submit treaties or policies for formal approval by the legislature. • Call elections; new executive • Legislatures play a key role in designing and implementing foreign policy.