Americas

1. Americas Postclassical Era

2. What were the major differences between the Maya and Toltec civilizations? • The Maya established city-states, united by a common culture but not unified by a common political or military system. • Their achievements were artistic, agricultural, and architectural. • The Toltecs were less influential culturally, but more influential in the areas of politics and the military. • They were more politically homogeneous, were under centralized rule, and expanded their control through military conquest.

3. What were the cultural and technological contributions of the Maya? • The Maya built upon the contributions of the Olmec and also made many additions, such as the calendar, writing systems, and mathematics. T • he Mayan calendar tracked both the ritual cycle as well as the solar calendar. • The mathematical developments included the concept of zero and place value. • The writing system was a form of hieroglyphic inscription, and for paper Mayans used tree bark and deer skin.

4. How did the environmental challenges of the Andes shape societies that inhabited the area? • The high mountain valleys and dry coastal plain led to new agricultural technologies and labor organizations, such as terracing hillsides and creating large irrigation works. • This environment also forced adjustments in transportation networks, creating enormous road- and bridge-building programs. • Society was based on the clan, or ayllu, system, and the mit’a, or rotational labor system. • The numerous small ecological areas of the region dictated these sorts of responses in order to guarantee survival.

5. Mesoamerican cities were among the greatest in the world. Describe Teotihuacan as well as Tenochtitlan, Tula, and the other great cities described in the chapter. What made them great?. • Each of these cities had complex social class systems, economic market places and trade, highly developed means of growing food for the large population, and extensive religious temples and rituals. • The city’s size drew farmers from their fields into urban craft production for a growing long-distance trade network. It was a religious, artistic, and trade center that had great influence on succeeding civilizations. • The construction of religious architecture is evidence of its importance as the center of religion. • Enormous pyramids dedicated to the sun, moon, and other gods were built along the central avenue. • The remarkable city of Tenochtitlan was laid out in the shape of a puma! It also developed technological breakthroughs in agriculture, such as chinampas, which helped support the urban population. Students should be able to look at their own world and make a comparison to these cities.

6. What was the Maya view of the cosmos? • The Maya cosmos was divided into three layers connected along a vertical axis that traced the course of the sun. • Human existence held an intermediate position between the heavens and the underworld. • A sacred tree rose through the three layers; its roots were in the underworld and its branches reached into heaven. • The pyramids were sacred mountains reaching to the heavens.

7. How do the Aztec and Inca empires compare? • Both states shaped their agriculture to fit their unique environments—the Aztecs in Mesoamerica and the Inca in the Andes. • Both states were ruled by powerful elites who depended on the tribute of subject peoples. • Both civilizations were also created militarily, with their survival depending on the power of their armies. • Their crops varied enormously; for example, in the Andes region potatoes and quinoa were grown at higher elevations, corn and cotton at lower elevations, while the Aztecs produced corn, beans, and squash more uniformly across their territory.

8. As Mesoamerican populations grew, political institutions gained in power. In what ways did the power of these political institutions affect Mesoamerican society? • The Mesoamericans built on the achievements of the Olmecs and other predecessors and developed new forms of political organization. • As populations grew, new political forms were necessary because a greater number of products were traded in the region and social hierarchies became more complex. • Great cities were constructed, serving as centers of political life and as arenas for religious ritual and spiritual experience. • These cities were dominated by platforms and pyramids devoted to religious functions, but were more impressive architecturally than earlier examples. • Powerful elites controlled the cities and the nearby towns and rural peasantry. • These elite gained the ability to organize and direct growing numbers of laborers and soldiers; mobilizing labor to construct raised fields, canals, reservoirs, and aqueducts increased productivity while transforming daily life. • The city’s role as a religious center and commercial power provided both divine approval of and a material basis for the elite’s wealth and status. • This elite controlled the state bureaucracy, tax collection, and commerce. New religious and artistic interests were also spawned. • The power of the religious and political leaders can be measured by the scale and impressive architecture at Teotihuacan or at the Mayan cities. • Linguistic developments and even recreation in the form of a game played on ball courts were all direct results of new political institutions. • This game was associated with the creation myth and thus had deep religious meaning. • There is evidence that some players were sacrificed. • There were also negative consequences, such as more widespread warfare.

9. What was the influence of religion on politics in the Mesoamerican world? • Religion played an important role in the development and daily life of Mesoamerican and South American cities. • The connection between religion and politics was a potent one. • The basis of American economies was agriculture. • To ensure agricultural productivity, Americans believed that the gods who ruled the natural forces needed to be appeased. • The animism of the American societies confirmed the spiritual vitality of nature in the form of the rain god, sun god, etc. • Among the ways these gods were appeased was through blood sacrifice, necessitating victims, preferably prisoners of war, for this purpose (although voluntary bloodletting by nobles was also common).