Learning Objectives

1. Learning Objectives • At the end of this lesson you will be able to: • understand the principles for writing introductions, conclusions and executive summaries; • recognize techniques to organize and explain your information; • understand techniques for writing clear and concise sentences; and • understand how to effectively edit your documents.

2. Introduction The structure and language of your report should engage your readers– easily and convincingly. But how do you choose the most appropriate way to organize your information?

3. Writing the introduction, conclusion and summary Every report needs an effectiveintroduction and conclusion. Executive summary But what information should it contain, and how much? Introduction Main body The same is true of executive summaries, with the additional question: Conclusion Do I need one at all?

4. Writing the introduction, conclusion and summary The introduction is like a “business card”. It is your first – and best – chance to engage your audience. The main question to ask is: Executive summary Introduction Main body What are most important events that have led to the writing of this report? Conclusion

5. Writing the introduction, conclusion and summary A good introduction leads the reader from general knowledge into details. It should also do at least three specific things for the reader: Executive summary Introduction 1 Create a context shared by the reader and the writer Main body 2 Clearly establish the purpose of the report Conclusion 3 Describe the organization of the report

6. Writing the introduction, conclusion and summary The conclusion gives you one last chance to move your reader in the direction you choose. Executive summary Techniques for effective conclusions: Introduction Recommend actions Main body Repeat the major points Summarize the entire document Conclusion Re-emphasize the importance of the topic Create a sense of ending

7. ! Writing the introduction, conclusion and summary An executive summary is a brief description of a report’s most relevant contents. Executive summary Introduction • If your report is well written and organized, you will: • review what you’ve written, • extract the most essential ideas, and • include them into the summary. Main body Conclusion • The executive summary should include what you want the reader to remember.

8. Writing the introduction, conclusion and summary An executive summary must answer the questions that decisions makers will look for on the report. Therefore, keep this list in mind: Executive Summary • What is the problem? • What does it need to be solved? • How should it be solved? • What are the benefits of solving it in this way?

9. Organization and explanation techniques How to organize and explain your information? There are three common schemes (or sequences) that can help you: The inductive sequence begins with specific details and uses them to build up to a general conclusion or recommendation. The deductive pattern is the opposite of the inductive pattern. The space/time pattern arranges information according to the sequence in which you or your readers might encounter it in the real world.

10. Organization and explanation techniques Within the organizing schemes, there are essentially six techniques for explaining your information: An example makes a general idea concrete, by giving one or more specific instances. Example An analogy is a type of example, which compares one thing to another. Analogy A definition uniquely identifies something. Definition Categorization is taking information and dividing it into distinct parts. Categorization Comparison and contrast illustrates the similarities and differences, respectively. Comparison and contrast Cause and effect explains why something happened. Cause and effect

11. Writing clear and concise sentences • Your writing style needs to be: • clear, • explicit, and • to move along quickly and logically. • A high level of readability can be reached by incorporating: • clarity, • economy and • straightforwardness into your writing. • (especially at the sentence level)

12. Writing clear and concise sentences To “measure” readability, ask yourself the following questions: Will my reader be able to understand what I have just stated by reading the sentence quickly? Will my reader be able to understand what I have just stated without having to go back and re-read parts of it? Will my reader run out of breath in the middle of the sentence? Have I used a big word when a little word will suffice? Is there more than one idea in my sentence? Are there any words (particularly adjectives and adverbs) that I can remove?

13. Writing clear and concise sentences Example of a sentence: The same sentence improved: “The area of communication that the focal points are interested in learning more about is along the line of technical reports used in agriculture and government.” “The focal points would like to learn more about technical reports used in agriculture and government.” Please look at the annex “Writing readable sentences” to learn about important techniques for improved readability.

14. Editing your documents Once you have completed a draft of your report, you will need to review it carefully. Here are some of the elements to pay attention to: Spelling Repetition of information Punctuation Dense, heavy sentences Sequencing of paragraphs/ideas Clarity of the message Missing information Politically sensitive issues Format Paragraph coherence Unnecessary information Unnecessary word repetition Logical sequence of sentences Grammatical mistakes

15. Editing your documents An optimal editing process has three stages: Conceptual/structural stage Editing Linguistic stage Proofreading/format stage

16. Editing your documents Conceptual/structural stage In this first stage you are simply reading quickly the document. You should only be focusing on the following elements from the previous chart: • Clarity of message • Sequencing of paragraphs/ideas • Missing information • Unnecessary information • Repetition of information

17. Editing your documents Linguistic stage The linguistic editing is the time-consuming stage, since you are carefully reading the document, word by word, and asking yourself, “Do I like the way that I have expressed this idea?” You will be focusing on the following elements from the chart: • Dense, heavy sentences • Clarity of the message • Politically sensitive issues • Unnecessary word fodder and repetition • Logical sequence of sentences

18. Editing your documents Proofreading/format stage Proofreading is simply checking for mistakes. You will be focusing on the following elements from the chart: • Spelling • Punctuation • Grammar

19. Summary A good introduction should clearly establish the purpose of the report and forecast the organization of the report. Techniques for providing effective conclusions are: recommending actions, repeating the major points, summarizing the entire document, re-emphasizing the importance of the topic. You will use inductive, deductive and/or space/time schemes to organize your information and various techniques for explaining your information. Incorporating clarity into your writing, especially at the sentence level, can help you establish a high level of readability. An optimal editing process has three stages: conceptual/structural stage, linguistic stage and proofreading/format stage.