Reversing Language Shift in a Cree Community in Canada:

1. Reversing Language Shift in a Cree Community in Canada: Dr. Olenka Bilash University of Alberta olenka.bilash@ualberta.ca

2. Today’s GOALs • What is language shift? • Brief overview of aboriginal language loss in Canada • Information about Cree • Description of the Cree Bilingual Program • Participatory Action Research • Results of the longitudinal study (7 years) • Insights, explanations and questions

3. Language Shift • Language shift occurs when • there are demographically small numbers of users • the process of outflow of users is greater than the inflow

4. Reversing Language Shift (RLS) A complex and long-term process that must be addressed at many levels: Changes in social use (habits of communicating in the language) Changes in ritualistic use Changes in economic value of language use Changes in technological integration of the language

5. Aboriginal Language Loss in Canada During the past 100 years or more, nearly ten once flourishing languages have become extinct; at least a dozen are on the brink of extinction. When these languages vanish, they take with them unique ways of looking at the world, explaining the unknown and making sense of life. (Norris, 1998, p.8)

6. Aboriginal language loss in Canada • 53 First Nation's Languages • A 1992 national language survey of First Nations communities found that: • - 11% had CRITICAL languages (fewer than 10 speakers or no known speakers in the community - AFN, 1992). • - 30% had ENDANGERED languages such that: • (1) less than 50% of adults speak the language and there are few if any younger speakers; or • (2) 80% of the older population speak the language and there are no identified speakers under 45 years of age) • - 28% had DECLINING languages (at least 50% of the adults and a lesser percent of young people are speakers) • - 18% had ENDURING languages (over 60% are fluent speakers) • - 12% had FLOURISHING languages (over 80% are fluent speakers and literate)

7. Aboriginal Language Loss • - in 1951, 87.4% of Aboriginal people had an Aboriginal language as their mother tongue • - in 1986, 29.3% of Aboriginal people had an Aboriginal language as their mother tongue • - in 1991 only 36% of adults over age 15 and 21% of children spoke an Aboriginal language (Statistics Canada, 1991) • - in 1996 51% of adults and 71% of children reported never having spoken an Aboriginal language (Burnaby in Cantoni, 1996) • Some languages have a chance to survive: Cree is one of them!

8. Aboriginal population in Canada • One-third of the Aboriginal population is aged 14 and under • Just over 1.3 million people reported having at least some Aboriginal ancestry in 2001, representing 4.4 % of the total population. In 1996, people with Aboriginal ancestry represented 3.8 % of the total population. • 24% of Aboriginal people could conduct a conversation in an Aboriginal language (down 5% from 1996) • Regular use of a language is key to maintaining its vitality. About nine out of every 10 people with knowledge of Canada’s most widely spoken four languages reported that they spoke the language at home, indicating that they used it at least regularly. • One in five Aboriginal people moved in the past year • 14% of population of Saskatchewan is aboriginal • Predictions that 50% of school population in Saskatchewan will be aboriginal by 2015

9. Cree language • Central Algonquian language • Algonquianwords were once described by the linguist Edward Sapir as resembling "tiny imagist poems.” (Hought-Mifflin Encyclopedia of Aboriginal languages) • Animate-inanimate gender markers • Pronoun markers (first person plural inclusive; two third persons referred to in the same context) • Roman orthography and Cree syllabics • About 50,000 speakers • Swampy Cree dialect (‘n’ dialect) - • Language is a gift of the Creator

10. Context: Northern Lights School Division • a provincial school system serving a predominantly Aboriginal school population located throughout the northern geographical half of Saskatchewan. • schools range from 12 to 500 students per school • caters to Cree, Dene, Metis, French, and English Cultures. • progressively pilots programs unique to Canada • Uses technology

12. Cumberland House, Saskatchewan • Metis - Cree community • Applied to be selected as the pilot school for this project • Charlebois Community School • 80%of staff are from the community and speak the local dialect • K-12 school • Strong community identity • Language is still spoken fluently by those over 40 years of age

13. The Road to RLS (** characteristics of Cumberland House) • Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale • Stage 8 - only seniors speak the language • Stage 7 - language is used by seniors, for rituals and modest intergenerational visiting ** • Stage 6 - interfamily interaction (between generations and between families)** • Stage 5 -Guided literacy development ** • Stage 4 - language is used in the elementary school** • Stage 3 - language is used in selective workplaces ** • Stage 2 -language is used in the media • Stage 1 - language is used at post-secondary level

14. Cree Bilingual Program: Beginnings • Legal • Ethical (marginalisation) • Would this program hurt children’s English language development? • Their literacy levels? • Did parents agree to the participation of their children due to community pressure? • Pedagogic • Teacher training • Resource development

15. Cree Bilingual Program (CBP) • 1999 - cohort of 22 children was exposed to 100% Cree in their daily kindergarten instruction • 50% instruction in each of Cree and English in grades 1 – 3 • No resources or direct research to build upon • Lots of trial and error • Annual testing of the children’s Cree and English language development • Annual interviews with administrators, teachers, parents, community members and the children • Growth in the self esteem of children in the Cree Bilingual program • Resurgence of self-determination • Sustainability? • Some results of the first year of the project are published in Bilash (2004)

16. CBP: 2005 • All children in K-6 are in a bilingual program (50% of the school day has instruction in Cree) • Jr. High students take Cree as a subject • Sr. High students take Cree as a subject • Night class for parents • Permission to publish translated materials

17. Methodology • Participatory Action Research (PAR) • Traces the growth, changes and challenges faced by individuals and institutions and their responses • Team includes the researcher • Aimed at recording change systematically but not at setting up hypotheses or working in a linear fashion • Expect the unexpected - that’s the way life is! • Longitudinal Study: • 5 years during the pilot project (1999-2003) • On going • Carr and Kemmis (1983); Elliot (1991); Kemmis and McTaggert (1982)

18. Participatory Action Research Cycle • Reflect • Think about what needs to be done and why • Plan • – Plan what to do and in what order and by whom • Act • – Carry out plan, collect data and evidence (read, interview, develop a survey. . . ) • Observe • – Observe, monitor and record • Reflect • – Reflect on what has happened - pros and cons and what the next plan might be. . . .

19. Participatory Action Research Cycles - there is no time limit on any cycle

20. Results: What has happened over 7 years? Shifting priorities: Evolution • Year 1: Research/preparation - gathering community support • Year 2: Survival - proving that it will work; excitement over the ‘new’ • Year 3: Pride in successes - CH seen with higher status in other communities • Year 4: Learning- beginning to feel like ‘they know what they’re doing’ - resources, teaching (centres, language experience charts), curriculum. . . ) • Year 5: Expansion - school equilibrium; community equilibrium • Year 6: Survival in expansion • Year 7: take talk seriously

21. What has happened over 7 years? CHANGE • Teachers (pedagogy, professional development) • Elders • Children (language development; self esteem; identity) • Resource Development (stories, games, activities) • School (classrooms, integration, report cards • Community (status, wounds and working together)

22. Action research • Some of what happened was planned • Building an infrastructure of support

23. Building an infrastruture: Roles and responsibilities External consultant Internal consultant Administrator Materials-PROGRAM-developer Mentor teacher New teachers Elders

24. Use Cree to teach and play games

25. Action research • Some of what happened was planned • Some of what happened was expected • Unease in the school re: Job security • Changing identity of the community • Increased consciousness

26. School Unease • Job security • Equality of work • Privileges

27. Changing identity in the community • Looking at where parents were when we started and what we are doing now is living within marginalization. Marginalization has surrounded us systemically and the opportunity to make a change was difficult for many... Especially those who felt that taking the risk of placing their child in a CBP would pose greater marginalization from the greater English speaking population. • The economics of English has spelled it out for many generations who have lived through negative ESL experiences and racism. I feel that marginalization is now even greater when you go into the larger society without knowing who you are, what language you speak and that how you look is different but natural. It is even greater when you cannot connect with those who are a part of your lifeline...your parents,grandparents and other community members. • Marginalizaion of our CBP meant paving the way for others and yes, it is fair to say that those children whose parents did not want them to even begin learning the Cree language have been marginalized.

28. Action research • Some of what happened was planned • Some of what happened was expected • Some of what happened was serendipitous • Insights gained by each team member • Program growth • Community connections • Waxing and waning of individual commitment due to personal circumstances

29. Bertha

30. Realizes that the children must develop the habit of speaking in Cree in kindergarten 21 years teaching experience Struggle to develop oral language - pictures help Excited uncertainty Follows suggestions re: centres, language experience approach - but not sustained; feels ostracised Looks for resources - NONE available - Realizes that manyKindergarten materials can be used in Cree Bertha Emphasizes reading, spelling Speaks English-Cree - then ONLY Cree Emphasizes songs and prayers - prizes in festivals Vision is to create a basal reader in Cree Bertha’s insights over 7 years - signs of growth

31. Anna

32. Over 20 years teaching experience Realizes that she needs to integrate/ thematise materials into units Finds pictures she used to learn English and Does an inventory of her work Focus/passion on learning to read in primary grades Emphasizes books - Unclear how to develop oral language Looks for resources - books - to translate Anna Takes inventory; Becomes a developer Wants to share creativity and humour Permission to observe/teach 20 minutes a day Struggles to develop materials for another teacher Anna’s insights over 7 years - signs of growth

33. Lily

34. Over 20 years teaching experience Overstretched but always responds to needs - commitment Rebuilds the TEAM - inspires and directs Teaches HS Cree and .5 administrator Coordinates summer team work Understands need to get students to talk and how (from HS) Lily (visionary) Settles school and community unease Changes language spoken in her home Problem solver - $ for elder, artist, winter camp, resource room. . . Cultural broker Maternity leave left a lag in leadership Lily’s insights over 7 years - signs of growth

35. Elder

36. Vocabulary provider Need more elders and a larger pool of healthy elders More use of Cree in classroom Gentle with children New person begins with different understanding of role Elders - Keepers of the Language Uses English Sick leave and Replaced Meeting on why she must use Cree Role of elder cl;early defined Continues to use English -CBP defines role Insights about elders over 7 years - signs of growth

37. Other teachers

38. Attend workshops NEED assistance - mentor teacher; workshops? Are they ready?? Use a lot of English - survival Doubters Tired, unenthusiastic - ‘lost’ but do not ask for assistance Other teachers Observers Begin to see the workload involved and how things were not unfair when they saw them that way Reluctant supporters Agree to teach Sense unfairness in school Insights about other teachers over 7 years - signs of growth

39. Gaining community support New report card Permanent program status Applying for the pilot School unease Program Preparing for the pilot Finding a permanent room for developer Funding for the elder Alternative program for those who did not want to be in the CBP Funding for artist Key events over 7 years - signs of growth

40. Summer activities in Cree & Meetings at least twice a year surveys about the pilot Consultation RE: Expansion of Program Year 1 Survey & interviews Graduation Community Connections Year 2 Survey & interviews Year 5 Survey & interviews Parental support Year 3 Survey & interviews Information meeting RE; Hawaii Parts of winter festival in Cree Year 4 Survey & interviews Consultation re: unrest Key events over 7 years - signs of growth

41. Summer Activities in Cree

42. Action research • Some of what happened was planned • Some of what happened was expected • Some of what happened was serendipitous • Some of what happened was disappointing • Student’s oral language development

43. Importance of Speaking and HOW to get students to talk - still not understood Hear mainly code switching - Translation Grammar/ structure Develop Listening Comprehension Vocabulary growth Student Language development Doing activities - colouring - no language development Spelling - and writing Songs Reading - decoding Festivals and prizes - memorization Key events over 7 years - signs of growth

44. Student Language Development

45. Overemphasis on Literacy Development

46. Needs • Habit development • Literacy practices in the home(in any language) • Speaking to children in Cree only • The children speaking Cree

47. Insights: Participatory Action Research

48. PAR in CH School-community change Children’s language development Teacher growth Materials development

49. What really happened: Some teacher preparation and materials development before the children arrived Teacher development Materials development Children’s Language development School and community change

50. What really happened:The children’s language begins to develop as the program begins. Teacher preparation and materials development continues. Teacher development Materials development Children’s Language development School and community change