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AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE DAT 10403

AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE DAT 10403. CHAPTER 1. LEARNING OUTCOMES. Reference. Computer Organization and Architecture Designing for Performance by William Stallings. WHY STUDY COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE. IEEE/ACM Computer Science Curriculum 2008

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AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE DAT 10403

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  1. AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER ARCHITECTUREDAT 10403 CHAPTER 1

  2. LEARNING OUTCOMES

  3. Reference • Computer Organization and Architecture Designing for Performance by William Stallings

  4. WHY STUDY COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE • IEEE/ACM Computer Science Curriculum 2008 • By IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Computer Science and ACM (Association for Computing Machinery) • Students need to understand computer architecture in order to make best use of the software tools and computer languages they used to create programs.

  5. INTRODUCTION

  6. COMPUTER ORGANIZATION & ARCHITECTURE Refers to attributes of a system visible to a programmer (attributes that have a direct impact on the logical execution of a program) Examples : Instruction set, data types (numbers, characters), I/O mechanism & techniques for addressing memory. Refers to the operational units & their interconnections that realize the architectural specifications. Examples : Hardware, interfaces between computer and peripherals & memory technology used

  7. COMPUTER OPERATION CYCLE INPUT PROCESSORS STORAGE OUTPUT

  8. COMPUTER FUNCTIONS Computer must be able to :-

  9. COMPUTER OPERATIONS Simply transferring data from one peripheral or communication line to the other Data transferred from the external environment to computer storage (read) and vice versa (write) Data processing en route between storage and the external environment

  10. TYPES OF COMPUTER OPERATIONS MOVEMENT 1. Data Movement Operation • Function as a data movement device. • Simply transferring data from one peripheral or communication line to another. CONTROL STORAGE PROCESSING

  11. TYPES OF COMPUTER OPERATIONS MOVEMENT 2. Read/Write Operation CONTROL • Function as a data storage device, with data transferred from the external environment to computer storage (read) and vice versa (write). STORAGE PROCESSING

  12. COMPUTER OPERATIONS [S.William 2003) 3. Process/Storage Operation 4. Process Storage/External Environment Operations involving data processing, on data either in storage (3) or en route between storage and the external environment (4) MOVEMENT MOVEMENT CONTROL CONTROL STORAGE PROCESSING STORAGE PROCESSING

  13. COMPUTER STRUCTURE [S. William, 2003] PERIPHERALS COMPUTER CPU MAIN MEMORY COMPUTER SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION INPUT OUTPUT COMMUNICATION LINES

  14. COMPUTER STRUCTURE

  15. CPU STRUCTURE • Major structural components of CPU:

  16. CPU INTERCONNECTIONS [S. William, 2003] CPU REGISTERS ALU COMPUTER INTERNAL CPU INTER CONNECTION CPU I/O SYS. BUS MEMORY CONTROL UNIT

  17. A BRIEF HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

  18. Charles Babbage (1791-1871) THE FATHER OF COMPUTER • born: 12/26/1791 • son of a London banker • Trinity College, Cambridge • Lucasian Professorship • Mathematician and Scientist

  19. Difference Engine • 1822 plan for calculating and printing mathematical tables like they were used in the navy • using the method of difference, based on polynomial functions

  20. Difference Engine • 1822 design 6 decimal places with second-order difference • 1830 engine with 20 decimal places and a sixth-order difference

  21. Analytical Engine • 1834 plans for an improved device, capable of calculating any mathematical function • increase of calculating • speed • never completed

  22. Analytical Engine - Architecture • separation of storage and calculation: • store • mill • control of operations by microprogram: • control barrels • user program control using punched cards • operations cards • variable cards • number cards

  23. Analytical Engine • more than 200 columns of gear trains and number wheels • 16 column register (store 2 numbers) • 50 register columns, with 40 decimal digits of precision • counting apparatus to keep track of repetitions • cycle time: 2.5 seconds to transfer a number from the store to a register in the mill • addition: 3 seconds • conditional statements

  24. Analytical Engine

  25. First programmer – Ada Lovelace • Ada Lady Lovelace, daughter of Lord Byron, was working with Babbage on the Analytical Engine • first ideas of • algorithm representation • programming languages • already realized: • program loops • conditional statements

  26. COMPUTER HISTORY • It has become widely accepted to classify computers into generations based on the fundamental hardware technology employed. • Each new generation is characterized by greater processing performance, larger memory capacity, and smaller size than the previous one.

  27. COMPUTER GENERATIONS

  28. Moore’s Law • Increased density of components on chip • Gordon Moore - cofounder of Intel • Number of transistors on a chip will double every year • Since 1970’s development has slowed a little • Number of transistors doubles every 18 months • Cost of a chip has remained almost unchanged • Higher packing density means shorter electrical paths, giving higher performance • Smaller size gives increased flexibility • Reduced power and cooling requirements • Fewer interconnections increases reliability

  29. FIRST GENERATION

  30. Vacuum Tubes - 1941 - 1957 • First Generation Electronic Computers used Vacuum Tubes • Vacuum tubes are glass tubes with circuits inside. • Vacuum tubes have no air inside of them, which protects the circuitry.

  31. Vacuum Tubes - 1941 - 1957 Vacuum tube

  32. Vacuum Tubes - 1941 - 1957

  33. Vacuum Tubes - 1941 - 1957

  34. ENIAC • first fully electronic digital computer built in the U.S. • Created at the University of Pennsylvania • ENIAC weighed 30 tons • contained 18,000 vacuum tubes • Cost a paltry $487,000

  35. IAS Computer • Memory of IAS consists of 1000 storage locations. • Both Data and Instructions are stored there. • Numbers are represented in binary form. • Each instruction is a binary code. • Each number is represented by a 39 bit value. • With each instruction consisting of an 8-bit operation code (opcode)

  36. ENIAC • Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer • A decimal rather than a binary machine. • Numbers were represented in a decimal form. • used stored-program concept. • A program could be represented in a form suitable for storing in memory alongside data. • Design of a new stored-program computer called IAS computer. • Main memory • Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) • Control Unit • Input/Output (I/O)

  37. First Computer Bug - 1945 • Relay switches part of computers • Grace Hopper found a moth stuck in a relay responsible for a malfunction • Called it “debugging” a computer

  38. First Generation Computers • Used the vacuum tubes technology for calculation as well as for storage and control purpose. Advantages: (1) Fastest computing devices of their time; (2) These computers were able to execute complex mathematical problems in an efficient manner.

  39. First Generation Computers Disadvantages: (1) The functioning of these computers depended on the machine language. (2) There were generally designed as special-purpose computers. (3) The use of vacuum tube technology make these computers very large and bulky. (4) They were not easily transferable from one place to another due to their huge size and also required to be placed in cool places. (5) They were single tasking because they could execute only one program at a time. (6) The generated huge amount of heat and hence were prone to hardware faults.

  40. First Generation Computers Too bulky i.e large in size

  41. First Generation Computers Vacuum tubes burn frequently

  42. SECOND GENERATION

  43. First Transistor • Uses Silicon • developed in 1948 • won a Nobel prize • on-off switch • Second Generation Computers used Transistors, starting in 1956

  44. 1 2 Transistor

  45. Transistor board

  46. Second Generation Computers • Use transistors in place of vacuum tubes in building the basic logic circuits. Advantages: (1) Fastest computing devices of their time; (2) Easy to program because of the use assembly language; (3) Could be transferred from one place to other very easily because they were small and light; (4) Require very less power in carrying out their operations; (5) More reliable, did not require maintenance at regular intervals of time.

  47. Second Generation Computers Disadvantages: (1)The input and output media were not improved to a considerable extent (2) Required to be placed in air-conditioned places (3) The cost of these computers was very high and they were beyond the reach of home users (4) Special-purpose computers and could execute only specific applications.

  48. THIRD GENERATION

  49. IC (integrated circuit)

  50. ICs (integrated circuits)

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