Week 2 Critically reviewing the literature - Chapter 3

1. Week 2 Critically reviewing the literature - Chapter 3

3. Definition of literature review The selection of available documents (published & unpublished) on the topic which contain information, ideas, data and evidence written from a particular standpoint to fulfil certain aims or express certain views on the nature of the topic and how it is to be investigated, and the effective evaluation of these documents in relation to the research being proposed. (Hart, 1998)

4. Reasons for reviewing the literature • To conduct a ‘preliminary’ search of existing material • To organise valuable ideas and findings • To identify other research that may be in progress • To generate research ideas • To develop a critical perspective

5. The research process (1) Stages of the research process • Formulating and clarifying a topic • Reviewing the literature • Designing the research • Collecting data • Analysing data • Writing up Based on Figure 1.2: Saunders et al.(2009)

6. The literature review process Source: Saunders et al. (2003) Figure 3.1 The literature review process

7. The Critical Review (1) Approaches used Deductive - Develops a conceptual framework from the literature which is then tested using the data Inductive - Explores the data to develop theories which are then tested against the literature

8. The Critical Review (2) Key purposes • To further refine research questions and objectives • To discover recommendations for further research • To avoid repeating work already undertaken • To provide insights into strategies and techniques appropriate to your research objectives Based on Gall et al. (2006)

9. Adopting a critical perspective (1) Skills for effective reading • Previewing – looking for text • Annotating – conducting a dialogue with yourself, author, ideas & issues • Summarising – state your points in your own words • Comparing and contrasting – how your thinking have changed, affect your responses to issues & themes Harvard College Library (2006)

10. Adopting a critical perspective (2) The most important skills are • The capacity to evaluate what you read • The capacity to relate what you read to other information Wallace and Wray (2006)

11. Adopting a critical perspective (3) Questions to ask yourself Why am I reading this? What is the author trying to do in writing this? How convincing is is this? What use can I make of this reading? Adapted from Wallace and Wray (2006)

12. Content of the critical review You will need to • Include key academic theories • Demonstrate current knowledge of the area • Use clear referencing for the reader to find the original cited publications • Acknowledge the research of others

13. What are the key sources? What are the epistemological & ontological grounds for the discipline? How is knowledge on the topic structured & organised? What are the political standpoints? Questions LR Can Answer How have approaches to these questions increased our understanding & knowledge? (Hart, 1998)

14. Is your literature review critical? Checklists Box 3.2 and Box 3.3 Complete the checklists to evaluate your literature review Saunders et al. (2009)

15. Checklist 3.2 (coverage) • Clearly relates to research questions & objectives? • Most relevant & significant theories covered? • Most relevant & significant literature? • Up-to-date literature? • Literature reference style?

16. Example of literature review reference writing styles… • Globalization is an ongoing process that is bearing witness to unprecedented change. As Friedman (2007) explained, many forces are coming together to cause a flattening or leveling effect of the world’s workforce. This has allowed many skilled workers from emerging nations to enter the workplace and compete for jobs that were traditionally held by only a few wealthy industrial nations. Global communication, international workflow, and connected knowledge sharing and learning are converging to realign power, wealth, and work (Folkestad & Banning, 2008).

17. Bibliography… • Florida, R. L. (2003). The rise of the creative class: And how it’s transforming work, leisure, community and everyday life. Cambridge, MA: Basic Books. • Florida, R. L. (2005). The world is spiky. The Atlantic Monthly, 296(3), 48-51. • Folkestad, J. E., & Banning, J. (2008). Ecology of the computer lab. Journal of Educational Technology, 5, 38-48. • Friedman, T. L. (2007). The world is flat: A brief history of the twenty-first century. New York, NY: Picador. • Griffith, R., Huergo, E., & Peters, B. (2005). Innovation and productivity across four European countries. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 22, 438-498. • Hamel, G. (2006). The why, what, and how of management innovation. Harvard Business Review, 84, 72-84.

18. Example of literature review reference writing styles… • Innovation positively contribute to the survival of the firm in dynamic • business environments [22]. Generally, firms with higher innovation rates sustain higher profitability over the long-term [59]. However, as Downs and Mohr [24] pointed out, there are two aspects of organizational innovation studies. The first dealt with phenomena • related to the adoption and diffusion of new innovations; in the IT area, examples include Moore and Benbasat [50], Fichman [27], and Swanson and Ramiller [63].

19. Bibliography… • [22] E. Danneels, The dynamics of product innovation and firm • competences, Strategic Management Journal 23, 2002, pp. • 1095–1121. • [23] D.L. Deadrick, N. Bennett, C.J. Russell, Using hierarchical • linear modeling to examine dynamic performance criteria over • time, Journal of Management 23 (November–December (6)), • 1997, pp. 745–757. • [24] G.W. Downs Jr., L.B. Mohr, Conceptual issues in the study of • innovation, Administrative Science Quarterly 21 (December), • 1976, pp. 700–714.

20. Checklist 3.3 • Previous research? • Strength weaknesses? • Objectivity? • Facts vs opinion? • Value & relevance? • Justify own ideas? • New insight is needed? Inconsistencies, bias/omission, further testing, lack of evidence, contradictory, limited • Referencing correctly published research?

21. Structure of the literature review Three common structures • A single chapter • A series of chapters • Throughout the report

22. The key to a critical literature review • Demonstrate that you have read, understood and evaluated your material • Link the different ideas to form a cohesive and coherent argument • Make clear connections to your research objectives and the subsequent empirical material Saunders et al. (2009)

23. Categories of Literature Sources • Primary (published and unpublished) • Secondary • Tertiary Detailed in Tables 3.1 and 3.2Saunders et al. (2009)

24. Literature sources available Literature sources available Saunders et al. (2009) Figure 3.2 Literature sources available

25. The literature search strategy (1) Write down • parameters of your search • key words and search terms to be used • databases and search engines to be used • criteria for selection of relevant and useful studies And Discuss these with a tutor (if possible)

26. The literature search strategy (2) • Define the research parameters • Generate key words • Discuss your research • Brainstorm ideas • Construct Relevance trees - use computer software

27. Conducting a literature search (1) Approaches can include • Searching tertiary literature sources • Obtaining relevant literature • Scanning and browsing secondary literature • Searching using the Internet

28. Conducting a literature search (2) Searching using tertiary literature • Ensure key words match controlled index language • Search appropriate printed and database sources • Note precise details used – including search strings • Note the FULL reference of each search found

29. Conducting a literature search (3) • Printed sources • Databases – use of Boolean logic and free text searching (Table 3.3) • Scanning and browsing • Searching the Internet (Tables 3.4 and 3.5) Saunders et al. (2009)

30. Conducting a literature search (4) Searching the Internet Saunders et al. (2003) Figure 3.3 Searching the Internet

31. Conducting a literature search (5) Searching the Internet Saunders et al. (2003) Figure 3.3 Searching the Internet (Continued)

32. Evaluating the literature • Define the scope of your review • Assess relevance and value • Assess sufficiency

33. Recording the literature Make notes for each item you read Record – • Biographic details • Brief summary of content • Supplementary information Sharp et al. (2002)

34. Recording the literature • Bibliographic details (Table 3.6) • Brief summary • Supplementary information (Table 3.7) Saunders et al. (2009)

35. Plagiarism Four common forms • Stealing material from another source • Submitting material written by another • Copying material without quotation marks • Paraphrasing material without documentation Adapted from Park (2003), cited in Easterby-Smith et al.(2008)

36. Summary: Chapter 3 The critical literature review • Sets the research in context • Leads the reader into later sections of the report • Begins at a general level and narrows to specific topics

37. Summary: Chapter 3 A literature search requires • Three main categories of sources • Clearly defined research questions and objectives • Defined parameters • Use of techniques – ( brainstorming and relevance trees)

39. LEARNING OUTCOMES After studying this chapter, you should • Define the meaning of theory • Understand the goals of theory • Understand the terms concepts, propositions, variables, and hypotheses • Discuss how theories are developed • Understand the scientific method

40. What is a Theory? • Theory • A formal, logical explanation of some events that includes predictions or how things relate to one another. • Goals of Theory • Understanding • Predicting

41. Research Concepts • Concept (or construct) • A generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences or process that has been given a name. • Examples: • leadership • morale • gross domestic product • assets • customer satisfaction • market share

42. Ladder of Abstraction • Ladder of Abstraction • Organization of concepts in sequence from the most concrete and individual to the most general. • Abstract Level • The level of knowledge expressing a concept that exists only as an idea or a quality apart from an object. • Empirical Level • The level of knowledge that is verifiable by experience or observation. • Latent Construct • A concept that is not directly observable or measurable, but can be estimated through proxy measures.

43. EXHIBIT 3.1A Ladder of Abstraction for Concepts

44. EXHIBIT 3.2Concepts are Abstractions of Reality

45. Research Propositions and Hypotheses • Propositions • Statements explaining the logical linkage among certain concepts by asserting a universal connection between concepts. • Example: Treating employees better will make them more loyal employees. • Hypothesis • Formal statement of an unproven proposition that is empirically testable. • Example: Giving employees one Friday off each month will result in lower employee turnover.

46. Empirical Testing • Empirical Testing • Examining a research hypothesis against reality using data. • Variables • Anything that may assume different numerical values. • The empirical assessment of a concept. • Operationalizing • The process of identifying the actual measurement scales to asses the variables of interest.

47. EXHIBIT 3.3 Hypotheses Are the Empirical Counterparts of Propositions

48. EXHIBIT 3.4A Basic Theory Explaining Voluntary Job Turnover

49. Theory Building • Deductive Reasoning • The logical process of deriving a conclusion about a specific instance based on a known general premise or something known to be true. • Inductive Reasoning • The logical process of establishing a general proposition on the basis of observation of particular facts.

50. Scientific Method A set of prescribed procedures for establishing and connecting theoretical statements about events, for analyzing empirical evidence, and for predicting events yet unknown. Techniques or procedures used to analyze empirical evidence in an attempt to confirm or disprove prior conceptions. Suggested steps: Assess relevant existing knowledge of phenomenon Formulate concepts and propositions State hypotheses Design research to test the hypotheses Acquire empirical data Analyze and evaluate data Propose an explanation of the phenomenon and state new problems raised by the research The Scientific Method