Chapter 29: The Vietnam War

1. Chapter 29: The Vietnam War THE BIG PICTURE: It was the first war to invade American homes via television. For years TV brought the Vietnam War into American living rooms. Seemingly unwinnable, the US war effort brought down a president and bitterly divided the nation.

2. Chapter 29 Section 1: The War Develops MAIN IDEA: Concern about the spread of communism led the United States to become increasingly involved in Vietnam.

3. Colonial Vietnam A Nationalist Leader Changing Rulers • Vietnam had been controlled by China since 200BC (drove them out in the early 1400s) • French took control of Vietnam in 1883 • Nguyen That Thanh hoped to gain independence for his nation at the conclusion of WWI, but was disappointed…France retained control • Changes his name to Ho Chi Minh and goes to Vietnam to fight for independence • During WWII, Japan controlled Vietnam, and Ho Chi Minh created the Vietminh to challenge the Japanese • France reasserted control at the end of the war and the Vietminh began challenging French rule

4. Vietnam after World War II The first Indochina War The Domino Theory • After the war, Truman refused to support Ho Chi Minh because he was communist, and the US was pledged to contain the spread of communism • 1949: China becomes communist, causing more American aid to flow to the French in their fight against the Vietminh • 1950: communist North Korea invades South Korea and communists revolts break out in Indonesia, Malaya, and the Philippines • Eisenhower believed that if Vietnam fell to communism, the other nations in Southeast Asia would fall too; this is called the domino theory • US began spending arms, ammunition, supplies and money to French forces fighting in Vietnam(75% of the cost of the war)

5. Vietnam after World War II France is defeated The Geneva Conference • Last major battle for the French was Dien Bien Phu • 40,000 Vietminh surround 15,000 French…US refuses to send troops to help • May 7, 1954: French surrender and agree to leave • Vietminh became experts at guerrilla war (hit-and-run, camouflage) • Warring parties met at the Geneva Conference to workout a peace agreement • Signed in July 1954, the Geneva Accords divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel (North communist, South nationalists) with elections to be held July 1956 • US pledged to support the South, China supported the North

6. Growing Conflict in Vietnam Vietnam’s Leaders A Civil War • North controlled by Ho Chi Minh (very popular with his people, their George Washington) • Minh took land from rich and gave it to poor peasants making him popular with the people • Leader of South Vietnam was Ngo Dinh Diem and he was not popular with the people (Catholic, anti-communist)and was corrupt and brutal • Cracked down on the Buddhist majority, gave gov’t jobs to family • Canceled the election in 1956 • By late 1950s, Diem’s opponents were in open revolt and North Vietnam sent supplies to the rebels called the Vietcong • 1955: Eisenhower begins sending supplies to South Vietnamese government (900 military advisors in the country at end of his term)

7. Increasing US Involvement Diem’s Overthrow The Tonkin Gulf Resolution • Kennedy supported US involvement (believed in the domino theory) & increased # of military advisors (16,000 by 1963) • Diem’s arrest and killing of Buddhist protesters led to them setting themselves on fire in public • US public support turned and the US helped overthrow and assassinate Diem in Nov. 1963 • Johnson wanted an expanded US role in Vietnam, but needed Congressional approval • 1964: Johnson claimed N. Vietnamese fired on USS Maddox in Gulf of Tonkin • Johnson misrepresented facts (Maddox was spying and actually fired 1st) • Gulf of Tonkin Resolution: authorized Johnson to expand the war • President no longer had to get approval for any military actions

8. Chapter 29 Section 2: US Support Of The War at Home and Abroad MAIN IDEA: As the United States sent increasing numbers of troops to defend South Vietnam, some Americans began to question the war.

9. The Air War • 1st action was Operation Rolling Thunder: a bombing campaign of North Vietnam • A major target was the Ho Chi Minh Trail: the route the North used to send supplies to the Vietcong in the South • Pilots also used Agent Orange (a chemical that killed plants) and napalm (jellied gasoline) to kill and burn the jungle to make the enemy more visible • Bombing backfired- increasing support for the rebels without harming them significantly • By late 1968, 1 million tons of bombs were dropped on Vietnam

10. The Ground War US Strategy Declining Troop Morale • US began sending ground troops commanded by General William Westmoreland • Conducted search-and-destroy missions to drive enemy forces from their hiding places (made enemies of civilians) • Pacification aimed to win civilian support (improving infrastructure and economy)– failed • Troops became frustrated with guerilla attacks • They didn’t know the terrain and the civilians were uncooperative • They were in constant danger and despite killing large numbers of the enemy, the fighting did not decline • Troops began to question if the US could ever win

11. US Forces Mobilize The Draft Noncombat Positions • 2.5 million Americans served in Vietnam, they were younger and 80% had high school education or less • As the US committed more troops, they began relying on the draft • Could get deferment (postponement) while in college, so enrollment skyrocketed • High numbers of poor and African American served • 1969- went to a lottery system with no deferments allowed • Thousands avoided service by fleeing to Canada • 10,000 women served in noncombat roles like secretary, nurse, or transportation

12. Public Opinion Shifts Media’s Impact/ Hawks and Doves The antiwar movement • Vietnam was the 1st war where TV crews were with soldiers • TV coverage profoundly influenced public opinion about the war • Images on TV contradicted the govt’s positive reports about how the war was going • US public began dividing into two camps: hawks who supported continuing the war, and doves who wanted the war to end • Major criticisms: Vietnamese did not want us there, drained resources from Great Society programs, and was being fought by poor and minority • As the fighting dragged on, the antiwar movement grew • Much of the activity occurred on college campuses • One of the most vocal groups was Students for a Democratic Society (SDS)who led the first nationwide protest in 1965 • While they were vocal and visible, antiwar groups were in the minority throughout the 1960s

13. Chapter 29 Section 3: 1968: A Turning Point MAIN IDEA: As the Vietnam War dragged on and increasingly appeared to be unwinnable, deep divisions developed in American society.

14. The Tet Offensive KheSanh The Main Attacks • Tet Offensive: a series of coordinated attacks by the Vietcong against the US • US had seen increase in traffic on Ho Chi Minh Trail • January 1968: Vietcong siege US base at KheSanh; it takes US 77 days to repel the forces • Westmoreland connected movement on the trail to the attack at KheSanh, but it was a diversion • Main attack started Jan 30, 1968 during the Vietnamese new year (called Tet) during a ceasefire • 84,000 troops attacked 12 US bases and 100 cities throughout South Vietnam • Although the US eventually put down the attacks, to many Americans, the Tet Offensive indicated that the communists would never give up

15. Effects of the Tet Offensive Growing Doubts Democratic Challengers • Feb 1968: respected anchor Walter Cronkite shares his view that the war was a bloody stalemate • Other major news organizations began expressing doubts that the US could win the war • Public protests grew and attracted more Americans • People within the Johnson administration began to express doubts (including Sec. of Defense Robert McNamara) • By the time Johnson was running for re-election ¾ of Americans opposed the war • Several Democrats began challenging Johnson, including Eugene McCarthy and Robert Kennedy

16. Johnson Seeks a Solution • General Westmoreland continued to insist that the US had won the Tet Offensive and that the war was almost over • March 1968: requested 206,000 more troops; due to public outrage, Johnson denied the request • May 1968: Johnson announces that he will try to negotiate with North Vietnam and that he will not run for re-election • Peace talks quickly stalled and the fighting dragged on

17. The Election of 1968 The Democratic Primary Fight The Democratic Convention • Johnson’s VP Hubert Humphrey enters the race after Johnson’s announcement and defended the administration’s handling of Vietnam • Both McCarthy and Kennedy advocated a rapid end to the war • Kennedy was an early leader in the primaries • June 1968: Robert Kennedy is assassinated at a campaign event by SirhanSirhan (angry over support of Israel) • August: Democratic National Convention meets in Chicago • Inside, delegate debated choosing between McCarthy and Humphrey, outside, Vietnam protests became violent under Chicago mayor Richard Daley • Much of the violence was broadcast on national TV • In the end, Humphrey became the nominee, but the incident revealed a growing generation gap between older and younger Americans

18. The Election of 1968 Nixon and Wallace The Election Campaign and Results • Republicans nominate Richard Nixon appealing to mainstream Americans and calling for ‘law and order’ • He claimed to have a secret plan to win the war with honor • George Wallace ran as an independent who opposed integration and war protesters • Most of his supporters were conservative, Southern Democrats & working class whites • Nixon led the polls for much of the race, but the gap narrowed in November, especially when peace talks with the Vietnamese showed progress • The popular vote was very close, but Nixon had a clear majority in the electoral college (301 votes)

19. Chapter 29 Section 4: The War Ends MAIN IDEA: President Nixon eventually ended US involvement in Vietnam, but the war had lasting effects on the United States and Southeast Asia.

20. Widening the War Vietnamization Laos and Cambodia • Nixon gets National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger to conduct secret peace talks in 1969 • Nixon’s ‘peace with honor’ plan also included Vietnamization: gradually turning over the fighting to Vietnamese troops while pulling out US soldiers • War protesters wanted all troops out immediately; Nixon appealed to the silent majority: middle class Americans who he believed supported Vietnamization but were not as vocal • While withdrawing troops, Nixon also secretly expanded the war by bombing Cambodia and Laos to disrupt the Ho Chi Minh Trail (goal was also to win concessions in the peace talks) • Nixon called it the ‘Madman Theory’- trying to convince the North Vietnamese he would do anything to win…it did not work • 1972 North Vietnam invaded South Vietnam again

21. Increasing Protests Campus Violence and Growing Protest Radical Protests and Troubling Revelations • 1970: Nixon announces an invasion of Cambodia sparking protest on campuses nationwide • May 4, 1970: National Guard called out to end protest on Kent State campus– fire into the crowd killing 4 (more violence on other campuses)…several shut down • Protest groups were joined by more mainstream, middle class Americans (over 250,000 marched in DC) • 1969: America learns of massacre of civilians by US troops at My Lai • 1971: New York Times publishes Pentagon Papersrevealing that the US gov’t had been misleading the public about the war for years • Nixon tried to stop publication in US v. New York Times but Supreme Court sided with free speech claims

22. End of US Involvement The 1972 Election A Peace Agreement • Nixon ran against George McGovern, who insisted on an immediate end to the war • 1971: Congress ratifies 26th Amendment changing voting age from 21 to 18 • Nixon stressed law an order and promised an end to the war • Weeks before the election, Kissinger announced a breakthrough in peace talks • Nixon wins in a landslide • Peace talks stall, so Nixon begins a new round of bombing (called the Christmas Bombings) • Peace agreement reached January 1973 • US agreed to withdraw all troops and help rebuild Vietnam • Both sides released all prisoners of war (POWs) • Agreement did not address what would happen to South Vietnam

23. The Legacy of Vietnam Cambodia and Southeast Asia Effects on Veterans • 1975: North invades South, Saigon surrenders April 30th • Communist forces called the Khmer Rouge gain control of Cambodia in 1975 • Vietnam War devastated Southeast Asia: 185,000 soldiers and 450,000 civilians in South Vietnam died (1 million in the North) • Over 700,000 refugees fled to the US • 58,000 Americans killed in the war • 300,000 were wounded and 2,500 were reported missing • Other soldiers suffered from post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or suffered from exposure to chemicals • Many soldiers were the target for American anger and shame

24. The Legacy of Vietnam The war’s political impact Healing from the war • US spent $150 billion fighting the war in Vietnam, greatly adding to the debt and fueling inflation • Many Americans were angry at the federal government by how they were misled • To prevent another Vietnam, Congress passed the War Powers Act: set a 60-day limit on presidential commitment of US troops with out authorization from Congress • Americans also became more reluctant to get involved in other foreign conflicts • 1982: Vietnam War Memorial was unveiled in DC • It lists all 58,000 Americans who were killed or listed as missing in the conflict • The US resumed relations with Vietnam in 1995