Almoravid and Almohad Empires: Society & Elites (Pt. 1)

1. The Almoravid and Almohad Empires Society Pt. 1

2. Society Outline: Almoravid and AlmohadPt. I ‘Elites’ Minorities: Christians, Jews Pt. II Women Slaves

3. Society: the Elites Bennison: Almoravids, Almohads both Berbers but different social and political structures Dichotomies exaggerated between: - al-Andalusia -- Maghreb- rural – urban- religious tolerance al-Andalusia --- extremism Maghreb

4. Society: ‘in theory’ Islamic society: wheel or circle of ‘justice’ Difficult to visualize – point is that in theory, society is not hierarchical but ‘circular’ with various components all interdependent Perhaps think of it as concentric circles which areas of intersection

5. Society: ‘in theory’ At the Centre is the Ruler ‘Caliph’ and family, surrounded by: Royal elite Men of the ‘book’ (ulama) and men of the ‘sword’ ‘wealthy’ merchants, manufacturers, landowners Majority of ‘ordinary’ people (rural, urban) Tribal peoples Religious minorities (cross cut all categories)

6. Society: ‘the elites’ Bennison: most important distinguishing feature ‘who paid taxes, who did not – who received gifts, revenue --- and who did not’

7. Society: ‘the elites’ Snapshot of Society 1044-45; marked end of Almoravids, beginning of Almohads (Bennison): story of death of Ibn Tashfin and who stayed with him until the end provides window on Almoravid politico-military elite: - Ibn Mazuli: ‘kin group’ (Masmuda) - Bashir: renegade (Christian convert/mercenary - Sandal: eunuch (castrated slave)[see discussion below, lecture ‘Society’, pts. 1 & 2]

8. Society: ‘the elites’ Evolution of power: ancestry vs aptitude Initially power associated with Caliph because of religious credentials and ancestry (Arab elite) Growing tension with those who ‘earned’ power (usually militarily, politically) – ‘aptitude’

9. Society: ‘the elites’ By time of Almoravids: System of ‘delegated’ authority emerged Islamic sovereignty not ONLY Caliphate: authority delegated to sultans, emirs Expected to show justice, piety AND political, military skills

10. The Elites: Almoravids Myth of Arabic Origin: Important for Berbers aspiring for power to legitimate authority Almoravids ‘men of the veil’ tell story of origin embedding themselves in pre-Islamic Arab world Focus: wearing of the veil

11. The Elites: Almoravids ‘Men of the Veil’: story establishes legitimacy Said that king from southern Arabia ‘heard’ that God was sending prophets and scriptures and gathered followers prepared to listen When he died, his followers were persecuted

12. The Elites: Almoravids They fled: veiling themselves to be mistaken for women Eventually they reached the western Maghreb and Sahara Took pride in wearing the veil because it attested to Arabian ancestry AND their willingness to follow Islam even before it arrived

13. The Elites: Almoravids Far from being evidence of ‘gender inversion’ (accusation of later Almohads), it was visible symbol of their legitimacy, their ‘credentials’ (Bennison) Their “unique, long-standing devotion to Islam” and to Arabian heritage

14. The Elites: Almoravids Almoravid Elite tended to be Lamtuna (Sanhaja): asabiyya: clan, kin Initially important but had potential to become problem: exponential increase in size especially because of polygamy, concubinage Was also exclusionary, preventing creation of effective ruling class: often said to be real reason for Almoravid loss of power

15. The Elites: Almoravids Veil: statement of Elite Almoravid status Controversial in al-Andalusia: Almoravids wore it even in Mosque Andalusians considered it sacrilegious Debated by jurists: ultimately permitted

16. The Elites: Almoravids Some evidence that those of lower rank (e.g. army), ‘non-elite’ Almoravids wore the veil to get away with carrying out crimes! (Bennison ‘cattle-rustling’ in the rural areas!)

17. The Elites: Almoravids Not entirely segregated society: In spite of differences (Almoravids, Andalusians) and Almoravid attempts to keep visible distinction (veil): socio-cultural barriers gradually overcome Elite Almoravid men took Christian concubines: ‘Ali b. Yusuf, son both children of concubines

18. The Elites: Almoravids Elite Heterogeneous: Military: other (non-Sanhaja) Berbers, Andalusians, Christian mercenaries, black slaves (sub-Sahara Africa), white slaves (Iberia) Not ‘Almoravids’ per se but considered part of ‘Almoravid elite’

19. The Elites: Almoravids Government and Administration: large dependency on/incorporation of Andalusians – jurists, officials (e.g. financial overseers – see lecture on ‘economy’) – bureaucrats in general Often interpreted as ‘need’ because Almoravids ‘ignorant of the law’, ‘uncouth’, untutored in Arabic language, customs, culture

20. The Elites: Almoravids (Bennison): in part was response to Almoravid arrogance in calling Andalusians ‘decadent and corrupt Muslims’ First generation Almoravids: not fully literate in Arabic (Yusuf b. Tashfin said to have used interpreter but. . . Myth of origin (above) shows desire to claim both cultural worlds as ‘their own’

21. The Elites: Almoravids Yusuf’s son ‘Ali given same Arabic education as Andalusian princes Turned to Andalusian jurists for decisions: e.g. Ali b. Yusuf – what to do with Christians who collaborated with enemy during attack on Grenada (see below)?--How to respond to Ibn Tumart’s public criticism?

22. The Elites: Almoravids Almoravid Elite: amalgam of Sanhaja and non-Sanhaja constituencies bound by allegiance to Maliki law supported by military from desert tribes and al-Andalusia (including Christians)

23. The Elites: Almoravids Amalgams vulnerable to fissures: No one reason why this ‘elite’ fractured Some literally ‘cast off their veils’ and joined Almohad resistance (Bennison – recounts story of Masufa, kin of the Almohads, throwing off their veils as declaration of their allegiance to “New Social Order” of Ibn Tumart)

24. The Elites: Almohads Almohads and the ‘new social order’: what was it? Almohads came together NOT as asabiyya (Kin) but to follow the mahdi: from outset not limited by kin But should not overlook role asabiyya played in keeping Masmuda loyal to Ibn Tumart

25. The Elites: Almohads Almohads: created new hierarchy Tribe subsumed to ‘supra-tribal’ Council of Ten (ibn Tumart’s closest disciples) Then came the Councils of Fifty, and of Seventy (each moving further from centre of power) Largest Council embraced all the different tribes

26. The Elites: Almohads Council of Seventy: Also included Military: from wide variety of tribes And Black Slave soldiers (‘abid) captured from the Almoravids ‘inclusive’ in contrast to Almoravids’ ‘exclusivity’

27. The Elites: Almohads Almohads: first and foremost ‘Berbers’ Deliberately privileged Berber culture, language Identified Masmuda as ‘New Chosen People’ Even ulama expected to be able to read Ibn Tumart’s works in Berber

28. The Elites: Almohads Goal short-lived: only partially successful vis-à-vis Arabic Furthered by bringing in of Arab al-Hilali tribes Movement into North Africa independent of Almohads but would not have moved into rural areas, ultimately al-Andalusia bringing Arabic culture if Almohads had not recruited them into the army

29. The Elites: Almohads Given generous land grants and salaries (lecture on ‘economy’) Became deeply embedded in Almohad elite Long-term influence on social structure

30. The Elites: Almohads Fundamental Change came with al-Mu’min: he was not of Masmuda clan Further undermined role of ‘tribe’ as compared to esprit de corps – being Almohad Influence, power of ‘inner’ Council diminished

31. The Elites: Almohads Use of Andalusians: not much different than Almoravids (Bennison): example of one whose father had been important to Almoravids; killed in conquest of Marrakesh He took refuge in army, concealing his identity as an archer

32. The Elites: Almohads at some point, his ability in Arabic was recognized Suddenly seen as being of ‘great value’ to al-Mu’min: taken into administration Rose to position of Chief Minister

33. The Elites: Almohads (Bennison) Asks: how should we understand ‘the Almohads’? Berber tribes who supported a movement? or term indicating all those who gave loyalty to a regime and its specific ‘version’ of Islam?

34. The Elites: Almohads Bennison argues: in spite of ibn Tumart’s intentions Almohad came to distinguish a ruling lineage with Maghrebi military support from Arab tribal auxiliaries Subject peoples many of whom continued to subscribe to the Maliki school – not mahdism

35. The Elites: Almohads Almohads seen as being just as ‘different’ from urban society (especially al-Andalusia) as Almoravids: Example given: Almohad military billeted in Seville neighbourhood: “burned their roofs for firewood, used reception areas of houses for keeping animals, stole from neighbours” – considered just as ‘uncouth’ and ‘ignorant’, here issue being urban culture more than religion!

36. Religious Minorities Bennison challenging general beliefs that: Umayyad era was ‘golden age of multi-culturalism’ (living together) moving towards one of intolerance under the Ta’ifa Princes and the Almoravids Al-Andalusia was more tolerant than North Africa, contrasting ‘moderate European Islam’ with ‘extreme North African/Middle Eastern Islam’

37. Religious Minorities “People of the Book” (Christians, Jews): governed by dhimma (Bennison) ‘unwritten contract’, grew out of pre-Islamic era – but in fact over time regulations were written (‘Pact of Umar’) [text box p.165] lays out exactly what we saw in the 9th c.: ‘more about principle than practice’

38. Religious Minorities Demography changed over time: Christian numbers declining In North Africa lived in small communities among both Arabs and Berbers Some in desert oases, more in Ifriqiya Most in al-Andalusia, still small communities

39. Religious Minorities Problem: to retain ‘ecclesiastical infrastructure’ Church personnel (bishops, priests, nuns); buildings (in spite of dhimma, evidence churches and monasteries built during Muslim Andalusia) People remained Christian, difficult to ‘practice’ but not because of laws per se

40. Religious Minorities Demographic changes over time: Jews Spread more evenly across Andalusia, Maghreb – as far as Eastern Islamic lands (as evidenced in the Jewish Merchants’ ‘Letters’) Jews played important roles as advisors, physicians, bodyguards, tax collectors (as well as being wealthy merchants, property holders)

41. Religious Minorities Problem: led to resentment among Muslims – ‘non-Islamic’ (against dhimma) Granada 1066: Samuel b. Naghrila and son Joseph viziers (ministers) to Berber (Zirid) emirs Included other Jewish and Jewish-converts courtiers

42. Religious Minorities Palace intrigue led to killing of Joseph “the mob turned their swords on every Jew in the city and seized vast quantities of goods and chattels” Bennison: roots lay in larger political struggle

43. Religious Minorities Factions of Sanhaja emirs, elite slaves (of Christian origin) and Jewish vizier competing for control of the state Also: jealously of Naghrila family (power, money) Jewish religion “excuse” used by Andalusians prejudiced against Jews of city: exacerbated by latter’s role as tax collectors

44. Religious Minorities Not about ‘Berber Fanaticism’: Was Berber Zirids who employed Naghrila and other Jewish officiers Happened twenty years before Almoravid conquest

45. Religious Minorities 1066-1086 (arrival Almoravids): situation worsened Arabized Andalusian Jews used as bilingual ambassadors to Christian kings Fed Muslim ‘suspicions’ of Jews: one was executed by al-Mutamid of Seville just before requesting Almoravid assistance against Alfonso VI (Christian King)

46. Religious Minorities In Maghreb: Almoravids met Jews as they conquered Sijilmassa, Awdaghust, Aghmat Yusuf b. Tashin strictly imposed paying of jazya (dhimma: head tax on non-Muslims) on Jewish mercantile community Seen as turning against Jews: misses point that they were wealthy – taxes source of revenue

47. Religious Minorities Marrakesh: evidence of segregated living Under ‘Ali b. Yusuf: physical segregation imposed – Jews lived in their own town outside walls “entered by day, departing at nightfall . . . For business or work they specialized in”

48. Religious Minorities Fez: ambivalence (c.1140) In the ‘Letters’, Doc. 1 (from Fez to father in Almeria): writer says “Hatred (of Jews) is rampant in this country to a degree that, in comparison, Almeria is a place of salvation” Yet, clearly Jews can (and do) still do business without interference

49. Religious Minorities Andalusia: issue was ‘mixing’ Maliki enforced dhimmastrictly Specified Muslims should not work as bathhouse staff, latrine cleaners or grooms for Christians, Jews – or risk punishment (Bennison) proof that they did work in these jobs

50. Religious Minorities Degree to which anti ‘non-Muslim’ sentiment grew must be seen in context 11th-12th centuries: north becoming ‘aggressive, expansionist’ – provoked heightened jihadist rhetoric among southern Muslims Northern attacks helped by local Christians: many left Almoravid territory in fear of repercussions