TEL 319

1. TEL 319 World Media Systems

2. The two main questions of this course: • What makes countries and their media different? • What makes them different along the media “have” / “have not” scale? I.e. Why do some nations have a lot of communication devices and produce a lot of content and other countries a little or none?

3. History of Telecommunications • Factors determining the evolution of modern communications: • Technological progress • Social transformations • Institutional evolution

4. History of telecommunications • From Post to Telegraph • Couriers – lasted for a few thousand years: • King Sargon, 3800 BC – Postmaster, maps • Cyrus the Great and his Royal Couriers – The Great Road  Sardes to Susa 1800 miles 111 stations • Romans  The Via system – Roman roads width “directly influences” the gauge of modern railways – 90,000 kilometers or 54,000 miles (see link) • The stage-coach system in the US – Pony express 2000 miles in 10 days

5. From travel to signals Send the message, not the messenger Signaling systems: • Greek firegrams • Persian, Gaelic and Amerindian voicegrams • Talking drums and talking cannons (Hudson valley) • Chappe’s semaphore – a cross with moving arms that were moved to create coded signals – first optical telegraph – France had in 1850 500 stations covering 2800 miles

6. FIRST TELEGRAPH • GREEK Telegraphs: • Water tank and torch • Drain water for as long as you see the torch lit at the nearby station • When torch disappears read the message on the floating rod

7. CHAPPE’S TELEGRAPH • First telegraphs: Chappe’s optical telegraph – Invented during the French revolution • Position of the arms determined the letter or a brief message • 1850: 500 stations covering 2800 miles in France

8. History of Telecommunications • Telegraph • Built on the idea of optical telegraph • Instead of using light, use electromagnetism • Noticed that electricity transfers quickly at great distance and creates a magnetic force • The inventor of telegraph was an amateur American painter  Morse 1845 Baltimore Washington; • Cyrus Field:1858 1st successful transatlantic cable; 1866 first long term cable connection • Government refused the monopoly  first telegraph titan Western Union

9. The telegraph Samuel Morse: amateur painter and inventor Invented the device and its alphabet (1844) – but not telegraphy itself S = . . . O = _ _ _ S = … First transatlantic cable 1858 (successful 1866) Major impact: the “wire” news agency

10. History of Telecommunications • THE CONTENT/SOCIAL REVOLUTION - From Quipu-s to print • Letters: some written, some orally delivered, some inscribed in ropes • Manuscripts took forever to produce: 2 bibles per year • Print revolution: 1 bible in a week or even a day – runs of 2000-3000 exemplars • 1500 AD: 20 million books in Europe, for a population of 100 million people • Print revolution: not only technological but also social • The rational-populist revolution: • Protestantism and its emphasis on literacy (personal knowledge of Scriptures) • Humanism and emphasis on general education and pursuit of knowledge beyond the limits (although not necessarily against) tradition • Using science to improve everyday life  needs more knowledge, etc.

11. History of telecommunications • The modern institutional system • Royal post for centralizing absolutist monarchies 1400-1500 – e.g. France or Spain • Where the system was decentralized the postal system was private  Germany and the Venetian Taxis • Era of war and nationalism (Napoleon): • All systems have, in the end, been taken under governmental control • For “reasons of state” – frequently war

12. Theory of libertarian (“liberal”) and communitarian (social responsibility) media systems • Libertarian media systems are based on a theory of society and of the press • Libertarian theory: • Facilitated by the Reformation • freeing conscience from bureaucratic churches frees individuals and consciousness from the manacles of tradition and authority • Appears in England, XVII century (Milton, Locke) • Developed in the US (Jefferson) and in England (Mill) • Consecrated by the US constitution • Not a “pure” system of laws anymore

13. Libertarian theory assumptions • Three assumptions – all optimistic – about the: • Nature of man: rational, end in himself, autonomous and creative • Nature of society/state: a natural contract of free individuals to preserve their individual happiness and autonomy; is not a reality greater than its members • Nature of knowledge: empirical and plural

14. Impact of liberal theory of knowledge on media theory and practice • Two part argument • Capacity to know is given to all by God; knowledge, however, is to be acquired individually: • Knowledge is empirical  given in our experiences; • there are as many varieties of knowledge (truths) as many experiences • the truth emerges by “rubbing” these individual truths on each other • Is a self-correcting, progressive, emergent process • A free and unfettered press (“free market-place of ideas”) is needed to allow the opinions to confront and correct each other (“self-righting” process) • See quote from Becker on page 44 and Milton’s argument summarized on pages 44 and 45

15. Mill’s reasons why the advantages of a free market-place of ideas outweigh its disadvantages • Main disadvantage of a pluralistic market-place: we have to put up with a lot of wrong-headed of even malicious ideas that have to be accepted as true until proved wrong • Mill says that even wrong ideas and opinions have value: • If we silence one opinion, even if this is wrong, we silence not one individual but the truth-making process itself • Even a wrong opinion might contain a grain of truth which we need for getting the complete picture • Even if the majority holds the right opinion, the dissenting opinion performs a useful function: it forces the majority to defend its ideas and not accept them as dogma • Unless challenged, truths lose their vitality and their impact on character and conduct

16. Effects of Libertarian theory on political institutions • The country that has first enshrined the libertarian idea in its laws were the US • Bill of Rights  First Amendment • Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. • Instead of specifying what (or what cannot) be said, the Constitution specifically mentions that everything can be said, without prior censorship • However, even in the US, there are limitations: • Libelous, offensive and indecent speech are not protected • Speech that presents a clear and present danger to the individual and collective security of the US citizens (WWI, justice Holmes) • Yet, these are more theoretical than practical – rarely applied, especially to print media

17. Communitarian (social responsibility) media • Main idea – the goal of communication systems is to further the goals and happiness of the community not that of the individual • Relies on different assumptions – mostly pessimistic—about man, society and truth • Man is not an autonomous agent – society is what makes him what he his – individual freedom is useless unless society makes sure that all have the same potential to achieve • Society/governments are the goal of individual existence, they are more than the sum of their parts • People are gullible and their innate desire to achieve true knowledge is debatable we cannot trust people to arrive at some greater truth through interaction (p. 100) • Somebody needs to tell people the truth, which is related to societal goals • Knowledge is always related to its usefulness for furthering the goals of society/state • We are given the right to know and express our ideas to further the good of the society as a whole, if we do not do so, we might forfeit this right (?)

18. Caveats to the two “theories” of the press discussed here • Chapter 3 in Siebert, Peterson and Schramm says that soc. Responsibility theory is uniquely American • In fact it develops on the European / socialist tradition (society and the state are greater realities and more important) than the individual • Social-responsibility theory was quite successful in the US, but not across the board. While the print media remains libertarian, broadcasting and some telecommunications are regulated within a “social responsibility” framework  although this conflicts with the first amendment • No pure libertarian system, anywhere • Europe: social responsibility theory and practices are less strong than they used to be, libertarianism has made strong inroads (privatization)

19. Communitarian (social responsibility) media systems • Main characteristic of social responsibility or communitarian media: • Media should serve a greater purpose, dictated by the state  social development, improve race relations, involve citizens in democratic debate etc. • Freedom is not “from” but “for” • Freedom of expression is not just a right but also a duty, if duty neglected or misused, right lost

20. Social responsibility media in an ideal world • Media should perform pre-set goals (not just in principle, but specifically and self-consciously), such as: • service the political system  make people vote • Educate people • Promote health and other social campaign • Hutchins Commission on the Freedom of the Press (see this link for more information) set the following goals • Make the factual knowledge presented in the news relevant (by some external standards) • Allow fringe opinions, even if unpopular and unacceptable by the public known, even make an extra effort to be known • Have a self-conscious race and ethnicity related policy of news coverage • Media should present and clarify the goals and values of society (should be subordinated to these goals and values) • Greater societal / media transparency

21. Social responsibility media: possible problems • Whose standards should we use for making the news relevant? • What fringe opinion are to be given an extra-voice? • Whose values and goals is media supposed to promote?

22. Modern Media systems: Western Media • Defined in terms of: • Their political and social regimes: • Libertarian/populist – American and Anglo-Saxon • Private initiative • Market driven; loosely regulated • Neutral in tone; general purpose; provincial • Strengthened by technological innovation • Communitarian/elitist – European and Asian (Japanese) • State or mixed state-private ownership • Tightly regulated and politically controlled • Partisan and associated with various groups; located in the capital city • Considerably weakened by technological innovation • To serve and to entertain the “people” (populist) although in Europe there is a conflict between populism and elitism • Two layers: national and multinational

23. American Media • Dominant force in the world. Why? • Influence or force? (see characteristics) • Central values: • Political: Freedom (1st Amendment “Congress shall make no law”). • Business: creativity, risk-taking, versatility on a market-based background • Economies of scale: internally and externally • A large internal market allows producing for outside markets at low cost • Content and social values: • Neutrality in content – people expect to be informed in order to create their own opinions – they do not expect to be preached at or indoctrinated • Individuality and personal freedom – each reader/member of the audience is a hero or should be able to identify with the hero – sitcoms and dramas – “ideal mirrors of reality” / Populism

24. Main characteristics of American Media: • Fragmented: • Geographically -- no national newspaper; typical newspaper 50,000 readers • “Hardware” and “software” ownership does not always overlap • Broadcasting is both centralized and decentralized • Institutionally – • the decline of the national networks and ascent of niche programming  fragmented audiences – Superbowl most watched TV show – 60% share; Seinfeld 20-30% share; regularly a show attracts about 15% rating (American Idol, ER, etc.) • News media pretends to be “above the fry” – no clear political or social affiliation, although this is eroding – NPR, NYTIMES, CNN perceived as being to close to the left; Fox News and Talk Radio – more in tune with the right • Elite (National Review, the New Republic) or low-brow (National Enquirer) publications are relatively small • Globalized: • American media is not a strictly national affair  CNN, SONY, FOX – combines localism with globalism • More and more local shows are produced with an eye to foreign markets (“lowest common denominator”) • Technologically adept: pioneers Radio, Television, Cable, Satellite and Internet communication

25. United Kingdom • Similarities with the US: • Based on an assumption of freedom, not regulation: No press law • Dissimilarities (along the lines mentioned above – government and communitarian concerns): • Politically-oriented national media dominates • Quality newspapers: The Times, Daily Telegraph, The Independent, The Guardian - centralized • A score of tabloids: Sun (Conservative); Daily Mirror (Labour) – circulation 3 - 4 million (for a population 1/5 that of US) • Broadcasting: • dominated by the BBC and by the ITN (independent but fiercely regulated) networks • Satellite and cable has broken the spell of state monopoly • Political control: Journalism board and special governmental laws can curtail freedom of speech – remnants of royal (now governmental) authoritarianism • World news leader due to its imperial prestige  BBC World Service 150 million listeners although in the US is now available only on-line

26. France • Illustrates the difference between US and Europe the best • One of the most powerful states in Europe: clear laws for suppressing or infringing on an absolute freedom of the press – • See Gubler vs. Mitterand example (http://www.sokol-law-offices.com/mitterandarticle.htm) • Book author convicted for a criminal offense for publishing a book about the illness of the former president Mitterand • Media dominated by Paris - centralized • Newspapers clearly politically oriented along not only ideological but also party lines: France Soir, Le Monde, L’Humanite • Television, until 1987 controlled by the government • Changes: Television privatized under technological pressure • Mass media more commercial and more global (Vivendi) • Struggles technologically – Minitel and low rate of cable and Internet penetration (30%)

27. Germany • Regionalized and fragmented (imposed by the Allies after WWII) • Several layers of government keep media in check • Organization • (Paradox) National newspapers are all provincial: FAZ, FR, SDZ (and of course partisan); most quality journals, one national tabloid (Bild) • Content • Newspapers and TV shows are relatively tame – do not confront authority too violently exception Der Spiegel • There is at least one type of speech which is totally censored: fascist and extremist speech • Technology and regulation • Television scene dominated by governmental networks: ARD and ZDF  great progress toward cable and private but not as much as expected • Not the most advanced technologically in Europe, Internet penetration 40% -- after UK (60%) and Scandinavian nations (70%)

28. The minor Anglo Saxons • Canada, Australia, New Zeeland • Relatively dynamic, combine government with private initiative (like UK) • Canadian protectionism (no tax exemption for advertising in American media) • Little brother advantage • Attractive as movie-making locations (Lord of the Rings, Xena, etc) • Directors, actors and technicians can more easily immigrate to the US – name an actor or personality • Use US as a global platform – Murdoch and his global interests: Europe, Asia and America

29. An exception in the making: Scandinavian countries • Traditionally very statist (social-democratic—ie “liberal”) nations • Regressive tax on advertising in Sweden • Today at the forefront of the Internet revolution: • Finland: Highest Internet penetration rate in Europe • Some of the highest rates of cable penetration

30. Japan • Most communitarian media system – atypical • Japan, Inc. – Social organization based on harmony “wa” – adjust your values to those of the group • Wa directs the way the media is controlled • See press correspondents clubs (rarely include foreign journalists) • News that can bother the emperor are not publicized – Crown prince’s search for a wife and her pregnancy were barely publicized in Japan • Centralized: • Three large newspapers, with local editions, largest circulation: Asahi Shimbun – 14,000,000 daily copies • Several Television Station (NHK and Fuji) • Governmental control  HDTV partial failure • Technologically sophisticated • Powerful hardware industry (most tv sets, VCRs or other electronics are produced in Japan or China, by Japanese affiliates) • But low computer penetration – complex alphabet and less emphasis on individualized technologies

31. European Union media policy • 1989 Television without frontiers: counteract Hollywood domination  50% of programming should be local • Paradoxical: without frontiers inside but raising a Chinese wall outside • Private industry quite successful in creating Europe-wide media channels: Euronews, Sky, RTL • European policy makers followers, not leaders in Internet revolution • When ahead in the game, misguided – see the French Internet: Minitel

32. The multinational puzzle • Largest media companies rarely national • They own and co-own each other across borders • Synergy: mix technology, consumer goods and content • Transborder “imperialism”: reflection of an interdependent world • Most of the transactions are in the Western World

33. The multinationals • Time-Warner/AOL – Remember CNN, TNT, TBS, Netscape, Compuserve? They are all here. • VIACOM/CBS – MTV and Dan Rather • Disney/ABC – Mickey and X-treme sports ESPN • Bertelsmann – “German” BMG, Arista (rap and hip-hop) and RTL • News Corporation/Fox – “Australian” includes STAR TV, largest Asian satellite service • Sony / Columbia Pictures / CBS records (Electronics, Music, Film) • Vivendi Universal – “French” Water, energy utility company buys Universal Media & Studios, joins whiskey smuggler company Seagram to form a 50 bn dollar empire • VNU – “Dutch” Nielsen; Hollywood dealmaker and distributor owns Billboard, Hollywood Reporter, Adweek

34. Totalitarian media systems • Generated by communist and nationalist-socialist political systems • They are an extreme form of communitarian media – their most extreme, anti-humanistic form • They are NOT the unique product of specific individuals (Stalin, Sadam, Kim Jong Il) or specific nations (Russia, China, Korea) • They are the product of ideological fervor and zealotry • Produced by political parties armed with an ideology of “enlightenment” – they KNOW the truth, which is one and forever

35. Totalitarian Media System Assumptions • Nature of Man: strictly controlled and regulated by a socio-economic (class), race or religious background • Nature of Society and State: are not only the primary element of social life but their true and only justified goal – hive mentality • Nature of Knowledge: Is acquired by enlightened elites organized in formal institutions – parties -- who have privileged access to “ultimate revealed truths”– • e.g. in communist regime true knowledge is revealed by the Marxist doctrine, whose sole repository and interpreter is the Communist Party leadership • In nationalist regimes to “savior”-like leaders and parties (NSDAP Germany, or Baath Party in Iraq) and or the military • In fundamentalist regimes to a church and its clergy – Iran, Saudi Arabia • Totalitarian Systems: • Communist and post-communist: Cuba, North Korea, China, Vietnam, Laos, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan • National-socialist: Syria, Iraq, Lybia, Burma, • Fundamentalist: Iran, Saudi Arabia, Taliban Afghanistan, Osama’s Caliphate

36. Totalitarian Media Systems -- Communism • Born out of the great Marxian-proletarian intellectual revolution of 19th Century • Main goal: replace all that is bad and imperfect on this world (economic inequality, social conflicts, injustice) with a perfect world • Perfection to be achieved not through reform but through radical revolution  violence • Why? Marx said that world progresses through contradictions, and reform only moves only the object of contradictions, not contradiction itself • Proletarian revolution the only one that removes contradictions by removing social class. This is done by eliminating private property and free markets

37. Classic Communist media systems • The political system is reduced to ONE party which is identified with the state – • The state is usually identified with the Supreme Leader • Each state institution is intertwined with a parallel system of party control • the state is a front for the party and for the upper clique ruling the country • The party considers itself entitled to absolute control because it is the institution that has absolute control over understanding where society and the world are going • Media becomes a bureaucratic department of the party: Propaganda and Agitation

38. Functions of Mass Communication in Totalitarian Systems • Serve other state institutions: Army, Health, Education, Propaganda • Are seen as an instrument of unity • They “explain” and interpret political “revelations” Freedom in these systems: “freedom to participate within the system; to acquiesce with the system”

39. News content in Communist/totalitarian Media • There are no episodic events that can be reported as they come • There is only one event, building socialism, strengthening the nation, revealing God’s will • Each article is meant to reveal and reinforce this event – they are proof that the story is right, not that there is a story to tell • It is all interpretation and all opinion (no objectivity). The only “straight” news refer to the Leader’s Acts – see North Korea Handout

40. Structure • All media is owned and controlled by the government • It is part of the governmental structure • It is fiercely centralized and narrowly specialized: • Trade Union Newspapers • Military Newspapers • Medical Newspapers

41. Totalitarian Media -- Examples • North Korea – N Korean Press Agency • Daily news – see handout: • The leader visits agricultural project • Secret Police officers offer thousands of potted Kimjongillias to the government. The flower was named after the President – Kim Jong Il (see details here) • Vietnam • Media has to have an “Educational” content  sometimes supported by American money see link here • News are usually congratulatory or self-congratulatory. When reporting incidents, they are usually created by the capitalists (see here)

42. Chinese Media • A media system “in transition” • Dominated by state media owned by the Communist Party, the Military, or by the local and central government • Somewhat more liberal in the area of entertainment but news is tightly controlled • More liberal media policy • Free Talk radio • Lively magazines • Party and governmental newspapers increasingly rely on advertising • Critical issue • Ownership: capitalist market without capitalists, • State organizations own and cross-own media • Makes regulation and control easier

43. Chinese media • The seven NOs • You are free to publish whatever you want as long as you do not: • Negate the guiding role of Marxism, Maoism or Deng Xio Pingsm • Oppose the Communist Party • Reveal “state secrets” • Oppose the national (“minority”) policy of the govt. • Advocate superstition, pseudo-science, violence and obscenity • Spread rumors • Violate national publishing and advertising discipline

44. Non Western Media • Dominated by authoritarian media systems • Authoritarian system: • Although there are laws on the book that guarantee freedom of expression, similar to communitarian and libertarian systems, they are ignored, circumvented and suppressed by raw force • The countries are ruled as dictatorships (royal or republican) • They can easily convert to democracy and libertarianism or communitarianism if the political leaders are eliminated (Italy, Spain) • Difference, communitarian—authoritarian—totalitarian: • Communitarian systems: media is regulated by clear laws which although more restrictive than in libertarian systems also ensure certain liberties • Communitarian media always function within the confines of the law • Totalitarian media systems suppress and repress freedom using laws: • Communist freedom of expression is always to be exercised within the system, which requires to support and promote the socialist/religious values of the system – See the 7 Chinese “NOs” • Authoritarian systems • Brutal and direct censorship and political manipulation of news content • Political influence above and beyond the law – uses raw force to impose its will • Some areas of freedom are allowed: e.g. entertainment • Although slightly communitarian, they have no set assumptions about man and society, it is all in the needs and ideas of the leaders/elites

45. Causes of authoritarianism • Why are many non-Western media systems authoritarian? • Social, ethnic and political cleavages – • authoritarianism a way of keeping the nation together: • Media is a symbol of control and power • A symbol of national pride and identity • Access to media unequal within and between nations • Purportedly facilitates development

46. Nigeria: Case study in authoritarianism • Most populous African nation, one of the richest (oil) and ethnically diverse (Muslim-Hausa, Ibo and Yoruba-Christian, native religious split) • Hierarchical vs. egalitarian political traditions (North vs. South) • A strong secular legal and political tradition (British law) but very fragmented and corrupt political system (Transparency International ranks Nigeria second before last in a list of 90 nations) • Strong business class especially among the Southerners

47. Nigeria – case study • Ethnic tensions  frequent coups • Alternates between democracy and dictatorship • Frequent journalists imprisonment (local lore “you are not a journalist until you spend some time in prison”) • Poor infrastructure hinders media work • National news agency mandated by law to: • Be patriotic, truthful, honest and fair • Don’t be an opponent of government, but a friendly critic • Frequent discussions about licensing journalists

48. Nigeria • More recently there has been a period of relative democratization but the authoritarianism of the leaders was replaced with that of the various ethnic and religious traditions • Northerners, Muslims, want common law to be replaced by Sharia (Islamic law), which uses corporal punishments and amputations • The great Nigerian Miss World Debacle of Nov, 2002 see link and video • Miss World to be held in Lagos, capital of Nigeria • The fundamentalist northern Muslims wanted the event to be cancelled (“decadent,” “corrupts the youth”) • A secular newspaper (ThisDay) published a funny/sacrilegious editorial written by an English educated young woman saying that the Muslims should not be offended by the event; if Mohamed, who had several wives, were to attend the event he would for sure choose at least one of the contestants to join his harem • Muslim riots—sacrilege—hundreds of deaths, Miss World was cancelled and moved to London • The journalist had to leave the country and the newspaper to apologize • Conclusion: authoritarianism does not need to come from above, sometimes it can come from below, from the grassroots. Mass media can be a particularly powerful source of contention

49. Non-Western media and the issue of development • Non-Western world inheritor of: • Colonial rule and underdevelopment of modern civil life • Historical low level of education and technology (including farming and health) • Traditional values: power, religion, personal worth  hierarchical and personal • Media can/should be used to solve these problems • Currently two understandings of “developmental media” • In the communitarian and libertarian tradition • Media as great multiplier, use its potentialities (as prescribed by traditional theories) – Lerner, Schramm social watchdog broadens horizons, rises aspirations feed interpersonal channels enforce social and political norms • Media should be used as agent of diffusion of innovation (like agricultural extensions in US); supplements existing culture • Second understanding of developmental media – closer to totalitarian theory: • Using a socialist-Marxist paradigm • Challenges the idea that democracy or Western-style industrialization are good for a nation • Western-style media and “freedom of speech:” commercialism fosters colonialism • Need for “Development news”: news-process owned and directed by the nation

50. Can media and technology help development? • Second wave of media development was a disaster – it fostered authoritarianism and it did little for improving people’s lives • Media can help in health, education or training campaigns, but not when vaccines are missing, teachers are underpaid and training is ideological indoctrination • First take care of the basics • Can technology solve the problem of development? • Setting up state owned television and radio only helps the leaders to indoctrinate the people  TV and radio set ownership does not translate into development • However, setting telephone systems fosters development – Leapfrogging: cellular telephony a great success throughout the world, but limited by need to interoperate with land-based companies and cost • Success stories: Lebanon, Romania, Nigeria, China (see link) • The formula that worked was that of free markets not universal taxation • ITU proposals: Maitland program and tax on telecom  Tax on international telecom for World Universal Service (1day walk rule) – 12 bn / year • Private industry ignored, but it did exactly that: satellite telephones at lower price (however, its most avid users are Osama and isolated terrorists) • Free markets usually solve rather than impair development (see the development of television in Latin America) • Can democracy and freedom of expression save countries from poverty? • Democracy does not create prosperity but can break the cycle of tyranny, corruption and under-development