Understanding the Middle East: History, Religion, and Conflict

1. Chapter 9:Background to the Middle East

2. What is the Middle East? • Middle East is not a geographical region • Concept based on a Western orientation to the world • Alfred Thayer Mahan • Dominated by two major concerns • Religion of Islam • History of Arab people

3. What is the Middle East? • Culturally, Middle East dominated by the religion of Islam • Most Muslims live outside the region • Many differing cultures inside Islam • Myriad of interpretations of the religion • Region witnessed the birth of three monotheistic religions: • Judaism • Christianity • Islam

4. What is the Middle East? • Centuries of conflict between Muslims and Christians • Islamic conquests • Arabic empires • Western Crusades • Mongol invasions • Turkish domination • Christian domination

5. What is the Middle East? • Three issues assisting in the illustration of the importance of the region: • Birth and spread of Islam • Confrontations between Christianity and Islam from the first Arab empire through creation of modern Israel • Expansion of conflict beyond the traditional geographical realm of the Middle East

6. A Brief Introduction to Islam • Mohammed was born about 750 CE in Mecca. • Mohammed’s vision of Gabriel told him God had chosen him to be a prophet to the Arabs. • Muslims believe that Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians worship the same Deity • Muslims believe that the Bible is a book of Allah, and that Abraham and Jesus were messengers. • Christians and Jews are called Dhimma = protected or guilty. • Mohammed’s role as the Prophet is crucial in Islam. • Given the direct revelation of God through Gabriel

7. Introduction to Islam • Mohammed’s emphasis of social egalitarianism was resented by wealthy merchants of Mecca. • Muslims believe Mohammed created perfect Islamic community at Medina • Combining a just government with religion • Mohammed stressed importance of community over tribal relations and Governance of God’s law in all aspects of life. • Mohammed conquered Mecca. • New religion spread along trade routes. • Mohammed died in 632 CE.

8. The Shiite-Sunni Split • Utterances of Gabriel written down and codified in the Qur’an. • Mohammed’s statements were recorded. • His actions became the basis for interpreting the Qur’an. • Muslims were expected to: • Believe in the existence of one God and Mohammed as God’s Prophet. • Pray as a community. • Give to the poor. • Fast during holy times. • Make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime.

9. Shiite-Sunni Split • Question of leadership: • One group of people believed that Mohammed’s male heir should lead the community (according to Arabic tradition); they believed that Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law Ali had authority provided by God. • Another group of people believed that the community should select its own leaders – caliphs (political and religious leaders).

10. Shiite-Sunni Split • Importance of community took precedence over tribal rule of inheritance – Sunni branch of Islam • Abu Bakr, become a first caliph in 632CE, after his death (assassination) Umar became a caliph. • Assassination of Umar led to new caliph Uthman. • Assassination of Uthman

11. Shiite-Sunni Split • Sunnis, or mainstream Muslims, followed the caliph. • Sunnis compose approximately 85-90% of all Muslims today. • Followers of Ali became known as Shiites. • Few theological differences between Sunnis and Shiites. • Main difference focused on line of succession to Mohammed.

12. Golden Age of Arabs • Following Mohammed’s death, Islam and Arabic culture spread through Middle East. • Two dynasties of leaders ruled the area: • Umayyads • Abbasids • Islam means submission to the will of God: • to make someone safe, to make peace, to submit oneself, to surrender • Muslim is one who submits: • Islam means the entire surrender of the will to God

13. Golden Age of Arabs • West began its first violent encounter with the Middle East through the Crusades (1095-1250). • European attempts to conquer the Middle East • Crusades – instigated centuries of hatred and distrust between Muslims and Christians. • The Crusades ended over 700 years ago;Islamic Jihad continues to this day. • European struggles with Ottoman Empire reinforced years of military tensions.

14. Agrarian Response to Political Crisis • Armstrong – Islam went through a series of crises before and after 1492. • Agrarian empires falter – religious zealots rise to call faithful back to true meaning of the religion • Theologically driven political reform movement is brought about by: • Invasion of Mongol and Crusader armies. • Stagnation of Arab thought and technological development after 1200. • Collapse of Caliphate in 1922.

15. Militant Philosophy • Developing religions invite various interpretations • Reformers of Islam called believers to an idealized past when crises erupted • Gave rise to militancy • Militants misused the theology of the reformers • Taqi al Din ibn Taymiyyah (Islamic scholar): • Developed new ideas about militancy and the faith after Arab setback of Mongols and Crusaders • Called for destruction of heretics and invaders • Called jihahad – the sixth pillar of Islam

16. Militant Philosophy • Taqi al Din ibn Taymiyyah • Muslims had fallen away from the truth • Must internally purify themselves • Believed Crusaders and Mongols defeated Islamic armies because Muslims had fallen away from true practice of Islam • Attacked anything threatening to come between humanity and God – emphasizing tawhid • Any belief that went beyond Mohammed’s revelation was to be subject to a purifying jihad • Expanded meaning of jihad to advocating attacks on non-believers and impure Muslims

17. Militant Philosophy • Abdul Wahhab: • Preached a puritanical strain of Islam in Saudi Arabia • Sought to rid the religion of practices added after the first few decades following Mohammed’s death. • His followers argue that they are trying to rid religion of superstition. • Muhammed bin Abd al-Wahhab’s descendents are known today as “Al al-Shaykh”. The family of Al al-Shaykh has included several religious scholars, including the current Saudi minister of justice and the current grand mufti of Saudi.

18. Militant Philosophy • Sayyid Qutb (Egyptian teacher and journalist): • 1965 published Milestones • Outlines theology and ideology of Jihadist revolution • Called on Muslims to overthrow corrupt governments of the West. • Muslims were in cosmic battle with the forces of darkness. • World descended to darkness shortly after the death of Mohammed • Called for the destruction of all enemies • Al Qaeda Manual cites Qutb as an inspirational source.

19. Modern Middle East • Three critical events helped shape modern Middle East in the late 1800s: • Ottoman Empire • Ruled much of the Middle East • Zionism • European Jews wanted their own homeland • Tensions rose when Jewish settlers moved into the area • World War I • Victorious nations felt they had won the area from the Turks • Divided Middle East to share spoils of victory

20. Mahan’s Middle East • Three factors became prominent in Middle Eastern violence: • The Palestinian question • Intra-Arab rivalries/struggles • The future of revolutionary Islam • Those factors are symbiotic – interdependent: • Express dissatisfaction over the existence of Israel • Are anti-imperialistic • United in kinship bonds

21. The Early Zionist Movement in Palestine • The Zionist movement broke out at the same time the Ottoman Empire was created. • Palestinians sold land to the Zionists; the ultimate purpose was to create a Jewish state. • The Zionists originally stated they had no desire to displace the Palestinians; they wanted to coexist with them.

22. World War I and contradictory Promises • British encouraged the Arabs to revolt against the Turks • Arabs were promised the Caliphate would be moved to Mecca and an Arab named as Caliph. • For a general Arab revolt against the Turks, the British agreed to support the creation of an independent Arab state at the end of WWI. • Balfour Declaration promised the creation of Israel. • Creation of Zionist Jewish homeland in Palestine • Directly contradicted promise to move the Caliphate to Mecca.

23. World War I and contradictory Promises • British negotiated a treaty with the French to extend their spheres of influence in the states of the old Ottoman Empire. • British also promised Russia control of one third (northern) of the area of Iran. • End of WWI the Middle East was controlled by British, French, and Russia. • Arabs and Jews could not develop under the watchful eyes of the British. • Both Arabs and Jews felt that they were given false promises and demanded their right to homeland. • Mandate of Palestine placed the British in the center of Middle Eastern affairs.

24. The Birth of Israel • Jews and Arabs resented the British; they also mistrusted each other. • Violence began in the 1920s. • Jews displaced by the Nazi holocaust flocked to Palestine in late 1945-1946. • British banned Jewish immigration. • Influx of Jewish immigrants continued. • Arabs start to arm themselves. • Modern terrorism resurfaced in Palestine before UN partition. • 1948 United Nations recognized the modern nation-state of Israel. • Arabs attacked immediately.

25. Arab Power Struggles and Arab - Israeli Wars • Modern Middle Easter terrorism: • Result of continuing conflicts in the twentieth century • Arab’s, Palestinians and Jews dissatisfaction with peace settlements after WW 1 • The French and British created a number of states that did not reflect the realistic division in the Middle East: Libya, Syria, Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq.

26. Arab Power Struggles and Arab - Israeli Wars • 1947 – 1967 Middle East was dominated by a series of short conventional wars. • Six Day War - 1967 • PLO began a series of terrorist attacks against Israeli civilians. • Arab states split into several camps: • Jordan camp: anxious about finding way to coexist with Israel • Egypt camp: avenge the embarrasment of the Six Day War • Ba’ath Party: Arab socialists calls for both Arab unity and the destruction of Israel • A group of wealthy oil states hoped for stability in the region • Yom Kippur War – Egyptians drove Israeli forces back into the Sinai; Syrians drove on to the Golan Heights.

27. Rise of Terrorism • Menachim Begin, Prime Minister of Israel, and Anwar Sadat, President of Egypt, signed the Camp David Peace Accord in 1979. • Soon after, Sadat was assassinated by Muslim fundamentals for signing peace with Israel. • Arabs rejecting peace with Israel fell into two camps: • Radicals rejected any peace or recognition of Israel. • Moderate groups were concerned about the fate of Palestinians.

28. Rise of Terrorism • In the 1980s Middle Eastern terrorism fell into several broad categories: • Suicide bombings and other attacks on Israeli and Western positions in Lebanon • Various militias fought other militias in Lebanon (Lebanese Civil War 1975-1990) • State-sponsored terrorism from Libya, Syria, and Iran • Freelance terrorism to high-profile groups • Terrorism in support of Arab-Palestinians • Attacks in Europe against Western targets • Israeli assassinations of alleged terrorists • Arab struggle against Arab: Iraq-Iran, Iraq-Kuwait

29. Iran • Iranians are not Arabs – they are Persian with strong ethno-national ties to the ancient Persian Empire. • Modern Iran formed within the context of European imperialism. • During the XIXth century, Iranians developed a hierarchy of Shi’ite Islamic scholars, including local prayer leaders, masters of Islam, Ayatollahs, and Grand Ayatollahs. • Iranian scholars form the majilis council, a theological advisory board to the government. • Majilis took political leadership

30. Iran • British influence and control • British were instrumental in placing Iranian leaders on the throne. • In 1925 Reza Shah Pahlavi become Shah of Iran with British support. • 1930s Reza Shah Pahlavi befriend Hitler; he saw Germany relations as a way to balance British influence. • In 1941 the Allied Powers forced Reza Shah Pahlavi to abdicate in favour of his son.

31. Iran • The U.S. took British place after WWII. • In 1953 Reza Shah Pahlavi formulated plan to stay in power. • In 1957 with the help of CIA and British recommendations, Reza Shah Pahlavi created SAVAK – a secret policy to destroy his enemies. • Clergy from Qom organized against Reza Shah Pahlavi – Shah released his forces and attacked Qom, one of his prisoners is Ruhollah (Ayatollah) Khomeini. • Iran disavowed the U.S. after the 1979 Iranian Revolution.

32. Iran • The Revolution: • Ruhollah Khomeini – Shiite Grand Ayatollah was leading figure in the 1979 Iranian Revolution. • Toppled the Shah’s government • Consolidated power by destroying or silencing his enemies. • Khomeini viewed President Carter as a manifestation of satanic power. • Created an Iranian theocracy with the majilis in charge of spiritual and temporal life. • Khomeini believed it was time to launch a holy war against the West and traitors to Islam. • Khomeini influenced majilis council dominated Iranian politics.

33. Iran • After Revolution: • New form of terrorism spread through the Middle East. • In 1982 Israel invaded Lebanon; Iranian revolutionaries traveled to Lebanon to help them resist Israel. • The Iranians arrived to Bekka Valey and established the nucleus of a new type of revolutionary force – HEBOLLAH. • Khomeini used a mixture of repressive tactics and political strategies to consolidate his power in Iran. • He removed Islamic scholars and political leaders. • He believed that Iranian Revolution was a first step in puryfying the world.