Understanding Memory: Key Processes and Types for Effective Learning

1. Psych 101 Dr. Harvey

2. Memory: Living with Yesterday

3. Fundamental Memory Processes • Encoding • Organizing and transforming incoming information to be entered into memory • Storage • Retaining information in memory • Retrieval • Accessing information previously stored in memory • Rehearsal • The continued activation of information to retain it in short-term memory

4. Different Memory Stores • We have three different memory stores, or sets of neurons that maintain information • Each memory store has a different… • Duration: the length of time information is maintained • Capacity: the amount of information that is maintained

5. Different Memory Stores • Fundamental distinctions among memory stores Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory Rehearsal

6. Sensory Memory • Very short memory store arising from the temporary activation of perceptual areas of the brain • Characteristics • Duration: Very short, typically less than 1 second • Capacity: Large

7. Sensory Memory Z R A T B S L D Q E K R • Sperling’s partial report technique: a tone indicated which row to report after the stimuli disappeared • High tone = Top • Medium tone = Middle • Low tone= Bottom

8. Sensory Memory • Sperling’s partial report technique • Conclusions • Large-capacity memory store that fades very quickly • Information must be accessed before it fades or it is lost • Attention is necessary to move information from SM to STM

9. Short-Term Memory • Short-term memory store is the only memory store whose contents you are aware of • Characteristics • Duration: Several seconds without rehearsal, typically 30 seconds with rehearsal • Capacity: Small, typically 5-9 items • Processes in STM • Chunking • Rehearsal

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12. Working Memory (WM) • WM was proposed to address the limitations of the original STM model • Three components of WM • Central executive • Articulatory loop • Visuospatial sketch pad (VSSP)

13. Long-Term Memory • Long-term memory store containing the accumulated knowledge base, gives meaning • Characteristics • Duration: Hours to years • Capacity: Huge-possibly limitless

14. Serial Position Effect Recency Effect Primacy Effect 100 Percentage Recalled 50 0 Early Middle Late Serial Position

15. Serial Position Effect • Based on what you now know about the different memory stores, how would you explain… • The primacy effect? • The recency effect? • The poor recall for words in the middle of the list? • How would the results change if… • The words were presented at a very fast rate? • After hearing the list of words, you had to count backward from 431 before writing down your answers?

16. Making Memories: Code • A codeis a type of mental representation, an internal “re-presentation” of a stimulus or event • You can store information in a visual or verbal code vs. “Coffee and a muffin”

17. Making Memories: Code • Information stored as one type of code does not need to match the original input • Visual stimuli can be coded verbally • Verbal stimuli can be coded visually • Information stored and accessed as visual code will activate the visual processing areas of the brain (occipital lobe)

18. Consolidation • The process of forming a relatively permanent memory trace in LTM may take several years! • Patients who receive electroconvulsive therapy experience disruption of memory for recent events, even those that are no longer in STM. Older memories are unaffected.

19. Reconsolidation • The simple act of recalling information can change the information. These changes are reconsolidated, restabilized as a stored structure. • Different proteins undergo consolidation

20. Depth of Processing • The success of learning new information depends upon the depth at which it is processed • Organization and integration is the key to learning • Intentional learning • Incidental learning

21. Flashbulb Memories • Highly emotional and detailed memories of personal experiences • Where were you on September 11, 2001? • Who were you with? • What were you doing? • How did you feel when you heard the news? • Sugar pill vs. Norepinephrine blocker experiment • Von Restorf effect

22. Explicit Memory Semantic Memory Implicit Memory Episodic Memory Types of LTM Long-Term Memory

23. Implicit vs. Explicit Memories • Implicit memories • Cannot be voluntarily called to mind and verbalized • Include motor skills • Explicit memories • Can be voluntarily called to mind and verbalized • Consist of both factual knowledge (semantic) and memory for personal experiences (episodic)

24. Implicit Memories: Skills • Skills are sets of behaviors that can be applied to a variety of stimuli within a domain, such as riding a bike • Initially, skills rely on controlled processing and given enough practice shift to rely on automatic processing

25. Biological Foundations of Memory • Long-term potentiation (LTP) is the strengthening of the connections between the sending and receiving neurons that underlies memory storage

28. Retrieval: More Than the Past • False memories • Loftus and colleagues (1978) • People watched a series of slides that showed a red Datsun stopping at a stop sign and then proceeding into an accident • Participants were asked • “Did another car pass the red Datsun while it was stopped at the stop sign?” OR • “Did another car pass the red Datsun while it was stopped at the yield sign?”

30. What Causes Forgetting? • Decay • Theory that memories fade over time because relevant connections between neurons are lost • Interferences • Theory that the disruption of the ability to remember one piece of information is caused by the presence of other information • Retroactive: New information interferes with old • Proactive: Old information interferes with new

31. Amnesia • Retrograde amnesia disrupts previous memories • Infantile amnesia • Anterograde amnesialeaves already consolidated memories intact but prevents the learning of new facts • Patient H.M.

32. The Repressed Memory Debate • Are they real memories that are forced out of consciousness and then later emerge, as hypothesized by Freud, or are they false memories? • Evidence is mixed