Unit Three:

1. How do we make sense of our world? Unit Three:

2. Learning Objectives Knowledge • To understand how thoughts, feelings and behaviours of people are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others. • To acquire knowledge about themselves; to consider the question:  Who am I? • To understand the role and function of social cognition as the processes behind how people think about the world. • To understand the role and function of social perception as the processes by which people come to understand other people. • To understand the role and function of self-understanding.

3. Learning Objectives Skills • To organize and integrate new knowledge and understandings by making connections with existing knowledge and understandings. • To organize and integrate new knowledge and understandings within the discipline of psychology. • To organize and integrate new knowledge and understandings with other disciplines. • To apply those concepts and understandings in a variety of practical, pertinent and contemporary issues. • To conduct research into topics and issues related to social psychology. • To compare and contrast methods of data collection, synthesis, organization and presentation. • To conduct research into issues of social psychology.

4. Learning Objectives Values • To appreciate the complex, dynamic, reciprocal and personal aspects of human social cognition, influence and interaction.

5. 3.1 How do we make sense of our world? Quips and Quotes Four things a person must learn to do For to make their record true: To think, without confusion, clearly; To act, from honest motives, purely; To love their fellow Man sincerely, To trust in God and heaven securely. Henry Van Dyke

6. Lesson Objectives • What processes do we use to understand the world? • How do we come to understand others? • How do we come to understand ourselves? • How do the key issues and questions in developmental psychology relate to making sense of our world?

7. How do the key issues and questions in developmental psychology relate to making sense of our world? From the time of its establishment, several key issues and questions have dominated the field of developmental psychology. Among the issues are the nature of developmental change, the importance of critical periods, life span approaches versus the more focused approaches, and the nature/nurture issue. • Continuous change versus discontinuous change: In continuous change, developmental change is gradual, with achievements at one level building on those of previous levels. In contrast, discontinuous change occurs in distinct stages or steps. Each stage brings about behaviour that is assumed to be qualitatively different from behaviour at earlier stages.

8. How do the key issues and questions in developmental psychology relate to making sense of our world? • A critical period is a specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequences. Critical periods occur when the presence of certain kinds of environmental stimuli are necessary for development to proceed normally.

9. How do the key issues and questions in developmental psychology relate to making sense of our world? • Life span approaches versus a focus on a particular period: Developmentalists now believe the entire life span is important, for several reasons. One is the discovery that developmental growth and change continue during every part of life. Furthermore, to understand fully the social influences on people of a given age, we need to understand the people who are in large measure providing those influences. For instance, to understand development in infants, we need to unravel the effects of their parents’ ages on the social environment.

10. How do the key issues and questions in developmental psychology relate to making sense of our world? • Nature versus Nurture: One of the enduring questions of development involves how much of people’s behaviour is due to their genetically determined nature and how much is due to nurture, the physical and social environment in which a child is raised. In this context, nature refers to traits, abilities, and capacities that are inherited from one’s parents. It encompasses any factor that is produced by the predetermined unfolding of genetic information, a process known as maturation. These genetic inherited influences are at work as we move from the one cell organism that is created at the moment of conception to the billions of cells that make up a fully formed human being. In contrast nurture refers to the environmental influences that shape behaviour. Some of these influences may be biological, such as the impact of a pregnant mother’s substance abuse on the fetus, or the amount and kind of food available to children. Other environmental influences are more social, such as the ways parent’s discipline their children and the effects of peer pressure on adolescents (Feldman, 2000, p. 10).

11. 3.2 Social Cognition: Overview Quips and Quotes If you close your mind in judgements, and traffic with desires, your heart will be troubled. If you keep your mind from judging and are not led by the senses, your heart will find peace. Tao TeChing, Verse

12. Lesson Objectives • How do we make sense of the behaviour of other people? • What processes do we use to make sense of other people? • What factors affect our judgement?

13. 3.2.1 Social Schema Quips and Quotes To a great extent, we are who we believe we are. Ronald Adler

14. Lesson Objectives • How is experience represented in the brain? • In what ways do we interpret our schema? • How are schema revised or changed? • In what ways do we create our own schema? • What is your schema for life?

15. How is experience represented in the brain? • A schema is a mental model of a person, object or situation. • Schema include cognitive maps (mental representations of familiar parts of one’s world), images, concept schema (categories of objects, events, or ideas with common properties), event scripts (schema about familiar sequences of events or activities), and mental models (clusters of relationships between objects or processes) (Bernstein and Nash, 1999, p. 223).

16. In what ways do we interpret our schema? Once we have selected and organized our perceptions, we interpret them in a way that makes some sort of sense. Interpretation plays a role in virtually every interpersonal act. Several factors cause us to interpret an event in one way or another: • Relational satisfaction: The behaviour that seems positive when you are happy with a partner might seem completely different when the relationship is not satisfying. • Degree of involvement with the other person: We sometimes view people with whom we have or seek a relationship more favourably than those whom we observe from a detached perspective. • Past Experience: What meaning have similar events held?

17. In what ways do we interpret our schema? • Assumptions about human behaviour: “People generally do as little work as possible to get by”, or “in spite of their mistakes, people are doing the best they can.” Beliefs like these will shape the way we interpret another’s actions. • Expectations: Anticipation shapes interpretations. If you imagine that your boss is unhappy with your work, you will feel threatened by a request to “see me in my office first thing Monday morning.” • Knowledge: If you know that a friend has just been jilted by a lover or laid off from a job, you will interpret any aloof behaviour differently than you would if you were unaware of what had happened. • Self-concept: When you are feeling insecure, the world is a very different place from the world you experience when you are confident. The way we feel about ourselves strongly influences how we interpret other people's behaviour (Adler et al., 2001, p. 96).

18. 3.2.2 Biological basis for social cognition Quips and Quotes Keep your face to the sunshine and you cannot see the shadows. Helen Keller

19. Lesson Objectives • How does our biology influence social cognition? • What biological processes are involved in social cognition? • What is autobiographical memory, and how does it influence cognition?

20. Applications • Research: • Altered consciousness: What are the effects of substance abuse (e.g., alcohol, drugs, stimulants, steroids) on the thoughts, feelings and behaviours of people? • Controlling consciousness: Hypnosis, biofeedback and meditation. What are they; how and why do they work? • Circadian rhythms: What role and influence do circadian rhythms play in people’s thoughts, feelings and behaviours? • Sleep and dreams: What does current research offer in terms of the role and importance of sleep and dreams? What are the cultural differences in the importance and interpretation of dreams?

21. 3.2.3 Judgements and Impression Formation Quips and Quotes Don’t look down on another person unless you are leaning over them to help them up! Anonymous

22. Lesson Objectives • How do we form impressions about people? • What are some biases that influence how we form impressions of other people? • How do we make judgements and decisions about other people?

23. How do we form impressions of people? • The evidence indicates that we follow a weighted averaging model in combining information about people. That is, we keep a rough “running average” of our trait ratings in our heads, as we discover more characteristics about people (Alcock et al., 1998, p. 40). • Each of us uses a particular organizing schema to make sense of the information about others. We do this by using perceptual schema - cognitive frameworks that allow us to organize the raw data we have selected.

24. How do we form impressions of people? • Five types of schema help us to classify ourselves and others: • Physical constructs classify people according to their appearance: male or female, beautiful or ugly, fat or thin, young or old, and so on. • Role constructs use social position: student, lawyer, wife, and so on. • Interaction constructs focus on social behaviour: friendly, helpful, aloof, sarcastic. • Psychological constructs: curious, nervous, insecure and so on. • Membership constructs help us to identify others according to the group in which they belong: teacher, Liberal, Environmentalist, and so on (Adler et al., 2001, p. 91).

25. 3.2.4 Prejudice Quips and Quotes The mind of a bigot is like the pupil of the eye; the more light you pour upon it the more it will contract. Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.

26. Lesson Objectives • What is prejudice? • How do people develop prejudicial attitudes? • How do we reduce prejudice? • Why does enhanced contact reduce prejudice and discrimination? • What is racism? • How is racism related to prejudice?

27. How do people develop prejudicial attitudes? • Prejudice is a universal human experience because it has so many sources – psychological, social, economic and cultural:

28. Psychological • Social cognition: When we follow heuristics or mental shortcuts, we sometimes make errors of judgement. These mental shortcuts also play a role in the development of prejudice. Two fallacies that promote the formation of prejudicial stereotypes are the illusory correlation - an apparent correlation between two distinctive elements that does not actually exist and outgrouphomogeneity a belief that members of a group to which one does not belong are very similar to one another (Buskist et al., 2002, p. 502). • Prejudices about individuals or groups are usually developed on the basis of perceived differences of one or more characteristics or traits. These differences may be physical, sexual, racial, national or religious, or may pertain to such particulars as language, accent, social status or age. Once persons have identified themselves as belonging to one group (the in-group) and others as belonging to another group (the out-group), regardless of the original reasons for this social categorization, they will expect to find intergroup differences and will go so far as to create them if necessary (Alcock et al., 1998, p. 368). • Scapegoat: The tendency for individuals, when frustrated or unhappy, to displace aggression onto groups that are disliked, visible and relatively powerless (Aronson et al., 1994, p. 523).

29. Psychological • Attribution errors: One reason stereotypes are so insidious and persistent is the human tendency to make dispositional attributions that is, to leap to the conclusion that a person’s behaviour is due to some aspect of his or her personality rather than due to some aspect of the situation. This is known as the fundamental attribution error (Aronson et al., 1994, p. 515). • Self-esteem: The tendency to perceive one’s own group as superior and that of others as inferior may be based on a need to enhance one’s own self-esteem. Thus, people who belong to groups that preach racial hatred tend to be those whose own social status is rather low (Buskist et al., 2002, p. 501). • Frustration/aggression: According to Dollard’s (1939) frustration-aggression hypothesis, frustration always gives rise to aggression and aggression is always caused by frustration. Frustration (being blocked from achieving a desirable goal) has many sources (Gross and McIlveen, 1998, p. 544). • Self-fulfilling prophecies: A self-fulfilling prophecy is a stereotype that induces a person to act in a manner consistent with that stereotype. Such a tendency is especially insidious because the behaviour of the person who is the target of the stereotype then tends to confirm the stereotype (Adler et al., 2001, p. 56).

30. Social • Affiliation: Apparently, affiliation and prejudice are two sides of the same coin. That is, along with the tendency to identify with and feel close to members of our own group or clan goes the tendency to be suspicious of others (Buskist et al., 2002, p. 501). • Groupthink: The tendency for group members, especially elite groups, to assume that the group invariably has the right answer. It occurs when a group seeks a solution to a problem without fully considering all the possible alternatives (Alcock et al., 1998, p. 369).

31. Media • Attitudes can be influenced by the media through selective or biased reporting in newspapers or by the repetition of stereotypes in television shows. Visible minorities are underrepresented in television commercials or magazine advertising in Canada(Alcock et al., 1998, p. 369).

32. Social learning • Role of the parents: Parents have a powerful influence, not only because they play a role in what the child learns from day to day, but because this learning forms the foundation for all subsequent experience. For prejudicial attitudes to be acquired, children must first become “racially aware”. In the early years ethnic attitudes are based on emotions and needs. The child then moves on to a second stage in which perception is dominant. The third, cognitive, stage is reached by the age of seven or eight. It is at this point that the child learns that members of an ethnic group have psychological as well as physical and behavioural characteristics (Alcock et al., 1998, p. 365). • Operant conditioning: Most of the reinforcements associated with acquisition of prejudice are likely to be verbal or nonverbal indications of approval, such as the comment “those people are dirty” followed by a smile and a nod which the child then makes it a part of his or her belief system (Alcock et al., 1998, p. 366). • Modeling: Not all learning involves the active intervention of a rewarding or punishing agent. Children often copy behaviour they have observed. Models, usually individuals with whom the child identifies, such as parents or teachers, have been shown to be highly effective in teaching attitudes and prejudice (Alcock et al., 1998, p. 367). • The prejudiced personality: Parents who have authoritarian traits teach their children that status is very important. In this case, prejudice is incorporated into a belief and value system that forms a personality in which the world is perceived in categorical black/white, superior/inferior, us/them terms (Alcock et al., 1998, p. 367). • Peer groups: Like parents, the members of peer groups are effective in influencing attitudes and behaviour because they offer information, reward conformity and punish nonconformity (Alcock et al., 1998, p. 370).

33. Economic • Resources: When times are tough and resources are scarce, members of the in-group will feel more threatened by members of the outgroup, and will therefore show more of an inclination toward prejudice, discrimination and violence toward the latter (Aronson et al., 1994, p. 521). • Relative deprivation: According to relative deprivation theory, the discrepancy between our expectations (the things we feel entitled to) and actual attainments produces frustration. When attainments fall short of rising expectations, relative deprivation is relatively acute and results in collective unrest and prejudicial attitudes (Gross and McIlveen, 1998, p. 464). • Realistic conflict: Sherif's (1966) realistic conflict theory proposes that intergroup conflict arises when interests conflict. When two distinct groups want to achieve the same goal but only one can, increased prejudice and discrimination is produced between them (Gross and McIlveen, 1998, p. 464).

34. Cultural • Nationalism: In modern history, a movement in which the nation-state is regarded as paramount for the realization of social, economic, and cultural aspirations of a people. Nationalism is characterized principally by a feeling of community among a people, based on common descent, language, and religion. • Ethnocentrism: The belief that one's own ethnic group, nation or religion is superior to all others (Buskist et al., 2002, p. 501).

35. Construction: Prejudice and the media • Find examples of prejudicial or stereotypical attitudes in the media, particularly magazines, television and the movies. • Create a glog of stereotypes that are the basis for prejudice and bias.