The Great War

1. The Great War 1914-1918

2. Road to World War I • When Franz Ferdinand was assassinated on 28 June 1914, it initially precipitated only a conflict between Austria & Serbia • General war was not evitable, as the European powers had previously been able to localize and manage such crises • Despite the actions that the political leaders would take in leading to war, there were several long-range underlying forces that were propelling European toward war

3. Road to World War I:Growing National Rivalries • Failure of the liberal hope of cooperation - instead competition • Colonial and commercial tensions • Moreover, the crises of the early 20th century taught the European powers a very dangerous lesson • Governments who used restraint to avoid war were humiliated while those who went to the brink to maintain their national interests were praised for preserving national honor • Support of allies, no matter the cost

4. Road to World War I • Diplomacy on the Constant Brink of War • This led to a diplomacy based upon brinkmanship which became very freighting in view of the nature of the European state-system • Issue of sovereignty and motivation of its own self-interest and success • Dissatisfaction of Ethnic Minorities • Nationalism, which had grown throughout the 19th century, also had its consequences - not all ethnic groups had obtained the goal of nationhood (Slavs) • Nationalism would prove to be the most dangerous of the underlying causes and prove to be the catalyst for war in 1914

5. Militarism • Another underlying cause was militarism, which was the belief that it is necessary to have strong armed forces • They should be used in order to win political or economic advantages, and was a belief held by nearly all of the political leaders of Europe

6. Militarism • Large Armies • One aspect of militarism was the need for larger armies (universal conscription) • In addition to increasing the size of European armies, their power was also increased (e.g., machine guns, artillery, and aircraft) • Anglo-German Naval Race • No longer considered one of the underlying causes of the war • However, the Anglo-German Naval race was an indicator of the underlying tensions that existed between the great powers

7. Contingency Plans for War • Another aspect of militarism was the growing influence of military leaders and military plans • Unfortunately, these plans were so complex, any change could throw the armed forces into chaos and therefore they insisted to the political leaders that the plans could not be changed • This inflexibility would have severe consequences because it restricted what the political leaders could do

8. Outbreak of War: Summer of 1914 • The immediate origins of the war can be found in the conflict between Austria and Serbia in the Balkans • The Balkan Wars, Serbia, and Austria-Hungary • The Balkans thus became a powder keg as Serbia’s ambition supported by Russia and her hatred for Austria combined with Austria’s fears proved to be the spark to set it off

9. Assassination of Francis Ferdinand • It is with this background of mutual hatred and distrust that the events of the summer of 1914 played out • The spark that begins the path to war was the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austria throne on 28 June 1914 • The Austrians, recognizing that Serbia was behind the assassination, issue an ultimatum to Serbia • The “blank check” • Serbia rejects the ultimatum and Austria declares war on Serbia (July 28) hoping to quickly defeat them and keep any war localized

10. Alliances Bring General War • Unfortunately, that does not happen • Russian mobilization against both Austria and Germany (July 28) • The problem of mobilization • Germany sends an ultimatum to Russia demanding a withdrawal of the mobilization, but the Russians ignore it and Germany declares war on Russia on August 1st

11. Germany’s Schlieffen Plan • With Germany’s declaration of war upon Russia, French involvement was now assured • The Schlieffen Plan • With the violation of Belgium territory, Great Britain declared war on Germany and Austria-Hungary on August 4 and thus all of the great powers were at war with each other

12. Declaration of War and its Consequences • Sir Edward Grey, the British Foreign Minister remarked that fateful day: “The lamps are going out all over Europe; we shall not see them lit again in our time.”

13. Illusions and Stalemate: 1914-1915 • The outbreak of war in 1914, though seen by many initially as preventable, was greeted with much enthusiasm • However, it was fueled by a set of expectations that would soon prove to be false • Expectation for a short war • Fatal attraction of war • Unfortunately, these illusions would die painful deaths in the fields of Europe

14. The Schlieffen Plan in Action • Germany’s hopes for victory rested in the Schlieffen Plan • The BEF, the French, Germans and the First Battle of the Marne • The “Race to the Sea” • Stalemate and the appearance of the Western Front and “trench warfare” • Except for a few instances during the latter years of the war, the opposing armies would remain in the same positions for nearly four years

15. German Successes in the East • Despite the immobilization in the West, the fighting on the Eastern Front in 1914 remained remarkably mobile and fluid • Per their treaty with the French, the Russians invaded East Prussia in August • Battles of Tannenberg (Aug. 30th) & the Masurian Lakes (Sept. 15) • These great victories would establish the military reputations of the two commanders, Paul von Hindenburg and his COS Erich Ludendorff

16. Great Slaughter: 1916-1917 • Trench Warfare • By 1915, the war settled into stalemate as the opposing forces faced each other from their trenches over the no-man’s land between them • If there is anything that has become synonymous with WWI it is trench warfare • The development of trench warfare created difficulties for the military leaders on both sides as they had been trained to fight wars of mobility • There are two battles that exemplify the great slaughter that was the First World War

17. Verdun, 1916 • The German offensive at Verdun in 1916 was an attempt by the Germans to bleed the French white, switching to a battle of attrition • However, as the French fed more troops into the battle, the Germans lost sight of their objective, killing Frenchmen • The battle was horrendous with high casualties on both sides; in the end, the French suffered 362,000 casualties to the Germans 337,000

18. The Somme, 1916 • Launched by the British, it was an attempt to achieve the elusive breakthrough and restore mobility to the Western Front • Instead, at the expenditure of 1,732,873 shells in five days of bombardment prior to the attack, the British would suffer 57,470 casualties on the first day (19240k and 35493w), the highest ever suffered by the British Army • The result of the whole offensive was the capture of piece of territory 20 miles long and 7 miles deep with 418,000 total British casualties versus 650,000 German

19. Hardships of the Average Soldier • Trench warfare produced unimaginable horrors for the fighting soldier • There was the confusion during battle • Battlefields were hellish landscapes of barbed wire, shell holes, mud, and injured & dying men • Those in the trenches also had to live with the constant presence of death • However, soldiers did not spend all their time in the trenches • Poetry of the Great War

20. Widening of the War • In an attempt to break the stalemate that was the Western Front, both sides sought new allies to gain an advantage that could prove decisive • Balkans and Gallipoli • The Ottomans had entered the war on Germany’s side in 1914; in April 1915, the British landed on the shores of Gallipoli, southwest of Constantinople, in an attempt to open a supply route to Russia and force Turkish withdraw from the war • However, the expedition bogs down and the British are forced to withdraw after heavy losses • Middle East • The conflict with the Ottomans also spreads to the Middle East, with the British, supported by their colonial forces, leading the fight • Lawrence of Arabia

21. Entry of the United States • By 1916, the war in Europe had spread through most of the world • The United States, largely neutral, had remained uninvolved • That would change due to the naval conflict between Germany and Britain • The Germans and unrestricted submarine warfare • Rescinded after the sinking of the Lusitania in May 1915, unwilling to anger the Americans anymore

22. Entry of the United States • However, in January 1917, the Germans again resorted to unrestricted submarine warfare in an attempt to bring the British to their knees before American intervention could change the balance • The Germans took a gamble and lost as the US declared war on 6 April 1917

23. Changing Face of War • With American entry, the war entered a new phase • Events were not going well for the Allies in 1917, but the cause of the Central Powers was not as favorable as it appeared • On both sides, events on the Home Front were having as much influence as those on the War Front and they would profoundly effect not only the war, but also European society

24. Total War: Impact on the Home Front • The transformation of WWI into a total war had an affect upon the lives of all citizens of the belligerents as government, economy, and society were changed in fundamental ways • Centralization of Government • The need to organize masses of men and material led to a increase in governmental centralization in all of the participants • Conscription was instituted to provide the millions of soldiers needed to fight the war – moreover, conscription allowed for the skilled workers to remain in the factories • Economic Regimentation • Wartime governments also extended their control over the economies as free market capitalism was temporarily shelved in favor of price, wage, and rent controls, the rationing of food supplies and materials, and the nationalization of transportation systems and industry • In effect, to mobilize the entire resources of their nations for the war effort, European nations had moved toward planned economies directed by government agencies

25. Shift to Total War:Germany • Not all of the participants made the shift to total war equally well • The Germans were the most successful as German economic mobilization was directed by Walter Rathenau • However, as successful at mobilizing their economic power, the Germans were less successful with their food rationing • Eventually, the German government was consolidated under military authority as Hindenburg and Ludendorff essentially established a military government in 1916 and would last until the end of the war

26. Shift to Total War:The Allies • The British and French government also increased their powers as the war progressed • The British initially tried to fight the war by continuing it liberal tradition of limited government interference • However, they soon realized that they had to take a more active role • The French were the least successful, for many reasons • German occupation of most of northern France denied her most of their heavy industry • Conflict between the military and civil government as to who would run the war • Only with the appointment of Georges Clemenceau that the civilians gained clear control

27. Public Order and Public Opinion • As the Great War dragged on, with no end to the death & slaughter internal dissatisfaction soon replaced the patriotic enthusiasm that had marked the early stages of the war • After 1916, strikes, which had remained few during the early years of the war, became more frequent • Opposition from Liberals and Socialists also increased, but both groups were either ignored and dealt with by the wartime governments • Use of propaganda

28. Social Impact of Total War • Benefits to Labor • One of the affects of Total War upon the economy was the acceptance of Labor Unions • There were two benefits to this cooperation: unions gained the rights to collective bargaining and it increased the prestige of unions allowing them to attract more members • New Roles for Women • The war also created new roles for women as they replaced the men who were called to the colours • However, after the war, women were quickly forced out of the positions they had gained during the war

29. Challenges to Class • The war was also a great social leveler; all social classes were affected by the war, but two groups suffered more than others • The aristocracy and the upper middle class • Junior officers • Suffered death rates 3x higher than normal – the results proving disastrous to European society • Unskilled workers and peasants suffered high casualties as they made up the bulk of the common soldiers • The fortunate ones were the skilled workers who gained exemptions because they were needed at home in the war industries

30. War and Revolution:Russian Revolution • Of all the powers, the transformation of WWI into total war had the most effect upon Russia for she was completely unprepared militarily & technologically to make the shift • Military leadership was lacking • Industry could not produce the material needed • Therefore, the Russian army was completely ill-led and ill-prepared for war and suffered for it; between 1914 & 1916, 2 million soldiers were killed while another 4-6 million were wounded or captured • There was also discontent among the people, both from the middle classes and liberal aristocrats and the peasants • Nicholas showed no leadership and by March of 1917, the monarchy was in its last days

31. March Revolution and a Provisional Government • The end began with a series of strikes in Petrograd in March 1917 • Abdication of the Tsar (March 15) • The autocracy had fallen, but it was no revolution – formation by the moderate Constitutional Democrats of the Provisional Government • However, their greatest mistake was the determination to stay in the war to preserve Russia’s honor when in fact everyone wanted an end to war • This led the Provisional Government into conflict with the other authority forming in Russia, the soviets, dominated by the Bolsheviks and their leader Lenin

32. Lenin and the Bolshevik (October) Revolution • The Bolsheviks were the minority group of the Russian Social Democratic Party • Led by V.I. Lenin, they split because the majority group, the Mensheviks were willing to compromise while Lenin sought a revolution to destroy the capitalistic system • They sought their chance in October of 1917 as discontent with the Provisional Government continued as Russia suffered further defeats at the hands of the Germans • Throughout November and into January 1918, the Bolsheviks gained control over the Russian government with Lenin in complete control

33. Aftermath of the Russian Revolution • Treaty of Brest-Litovsk • However, Lenin knew that peace was needed for the Bolshevik revolution to truly establish itself in Russia • Therefore, he made peace with Germany on 3 March 1918 with the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk • However, peace still did not come to Russia • Civil War • Opposition to Lenin and the Bolsheviks began to grow resulting in the Russian Civil War that would last from 1918 to 1921 • The fighting between the Reds & Whites was fearsome with the death toll equaling or even surpassing that of WWI • By 1921, the Reds or Bolsheviks had defeated their enemies and established complete control over Russia and Russia was again transformed, this time into a centralized state governed by a single party

34. Last Year of the War: 1918 • With the withdrawal of Russia from the war, the Germans were now able to focus their military might in the West • Utilizing new tactics, the Germany army, under the command of Hindenburg & Ludendorff, launched one last offensive in hopes of defeating the French and British before American might could be felt • Ludendorff’s gamble failed as the Germans suffered over one million casualties and had exhausted his reserves • Arrival of the Americans and the Allies advance toward Germany

35. Armistice: November 11 • On 29 September 1918, Ludendorff informed the government that the war was lost • Unwilling to place blame on the army, Ludendorff demanded the government sue for peace immediately • However, the Allies were not willing to deal with the autocratic imperial government, so reforms were made, but they were too late • In November, naval units in Kiel mutinied and German soviets began to form throughout Germany • On November 9th, William II succumbed to public pressure and abdicated, while the socialist under Friedrich Ebert announced the establishment of a republic • Two days later, on November 11th, an armistice was signed, but peace had not yet taken hold as he revolutionary impulses started by the war had yet to exhaust themselves

36. Revolutions in Germany and Austria • In Germany, the Social Democrats were the only party strong enough to pick up the pieces, but they were challenged by the more radical Independent Socialists who formed the German Communist Party • However, when the Communists tried to seize control they were defeated with the support of the army • The Republic had been saved, but only because the Social Democrats had to rely on the army, and thus the traditionalists • This had two effects for the infant republic – the continuation of the tension between tradition and modernization, and a deep hatred for communism among the middle class

37. Division of the Austrian Empire • The Austrian empire also suffered disintegration and revolution • The nationalistic forces they had hoped to crush in 1914 in the end destroyed Austria as the ethnic minorities gained independent states • Austria-Hungary was now replaced by the republic of Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia • However, the rivalries among the successors would weaken eastern Europe and create instability that has only now been fixed

38. Paris Peace Settlement • In January 1919, the delegations of the victorious Allies met in Paris to conclude a final settlement of the Great War • Although the war began with selfish national interests, by 1919 more idealistic principles had become dominant, best enunciated by the American president Woodrow Wilson • Wilson’s ideals were formulated in the Fourteen Points, to which other standards were added including open covenants instead of secret diplomacy, the reduction of armaments, and self-determination

39. Paris Peace Settlement • Wilson characterized WWI as a war waged against “absolutism and militarism,” two scourges that could only be destroyed by democratic governments and a “general association of nations” that would guarantee peace • As a the spokesman of liberty, Wilson was enthusiastically greeted by the people of Europe when he arrived

40. Quest for Reward and Retribution • However, Wilson soon found out that the rest of the Allies at Paris were guided by more pragmatic motives and national interests could not be ignored • David Lloyd George, PM of Great Britain, had just been reelected on a platform of making the Germans pay for the war • The French were particularly guided by national interests • Georges Clemenceau wanted revenge and security against any further German aggression • He wanted Germany demilitarized and the Rhineland separated to form a buffer between the two nations

41. Quest for Reward and Retribution • Despite these harsh demands, Wilson was able to temper them as he saw them vindictive and contrary to national self-determination • Eventually, the concerns of all the Allies were addressed and on 28 June 1919 the Treaty of Versailles was signed

42. The Treaty of Versailles • The final peace settlement of Paris was in fact five separate treaties of which the Treaty of Versailles with Germany was the most important • The Germans considered it a harsh treaty and they were particularly displeased about Article 231, the infamous War Guilt Clause • It declared that Germany (& Austria) were responsible for the war and liable to pay reparations to the Allies for all the damage caused • The amount was not specified in the Treaty, but was to be decided later

43. The Treaty of Versailles • In addition, the German Army was reduced to 100,000 men, Alsace & Lorraine were to be returned to France as well as territories to Poland • Moreover, the Rhineland was to occupied and demilitarized • Outraged by the dictated treaty, the German government resigned, but the new one eventually signed the Peace as they had no choice

44. Dismemberment of Empires • The other treaties also redrew the map of eastern Europe • Germany and Russia lost territory • Formation of new nation-states such as Finland, Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Czechoslovakia • Other states, such as Romania, were enlarged • But one problem still remained – the existence of ethnic minorities • The Ottoman Empire also disappeared, replaced by some independent states, but mostly by mandates granted to France and Britain by the League of Nations - Imperialism had not yet died

45. The League of Nations • One of the supposed hopes of Versailles was the creation of the League of Nations • Adopted on 25 January 1919, it was to be an international body that could resolve future conflicts peacefully and prevent another Great War • Although there were initially high hopes for the League, they would prove misplaced as the decades progressed

46. Results of the Great War • The shattering of the liberal and rational assumptions of late 19th & early 20th century European society • The death of over 10 million people and the destruction of millions of dollars of property & material • That could be replaced, but the generation of leaders, poets, and artists could not be replaced so easily • Lastly, European dominance over Western society, politically, militarily, and economically, was fatally weakened, allowing for the rise of the United States and the Soviet Union later in the century • Ultimately, Europe between 1914 and 1918 tried to commit suicide