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Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology

http://www.ideachampions.com/weblogs/pills.jpg. Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Group U6. Michael Trevathan Pavitra Timbalia Jared Walker. http://www.geekologie.com/2009/07/29/nanodiamond.jpg. April 29, 2010. Outline.

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Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology

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  1. http://www.ideachampions.com/weblogs/pills.jpg Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology Group U6 Michael Trevathan PavitraTimbalia Jared Walker http://www.geekologie.com/2009/07/29/nanodiamond.jpg April 29, 2010

  2. Outline http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.beelinetraining.com/assets/images/autogen/a_Pres.gif • Introduction • Current Research • Nanoemulsion: A Pharmaceutical Review • Nanotechnology in Vaccine Development: A Step Forward • Nanotechnology based systems for the treatment and prevention of HIV/AIDS • Possible Further Research • Conclusions • Questions

  3. http://www.nanoparticles.org/targeted-nanoparticles.jpg What Roles Do Nanoparticles Play in the Pharmaceutical Industry? INTroduction

  4. Introduction • A nanometer is one-billionth of a meter • In perspective, it is analogous to comparing the size of a marble to the size of the Earth • Nanopharmaceuticals is the manipulation of atoms and molecules in the range of 1 to 100 nm to produce a novel characteristic or property for medicinal purposes http://autonomieproject.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/2222523486_5e1894e314.jpg http://www.publicdomainpictures.net/pictures/2000/nahled/1-1222003081IENB.jpg Bawarski, Willie E. "Emerging Nanopharmaceuticals." Nanomedicine:Nanotechnology, Biology, and Medicine 4.4 (2008): 273-82. ScienceDirect. Web. 11 Apr. 2010. <http://sciencedirect.com>.

  5. Motivation • Nanomedicine has become a billion dollar industry because • Ability to overcome solubility and stability issues • Localize drug delivery • Diagnose via in vivo imaging • Spawn of individualized medicine • Generate simultaneous • Diagnosing • Delivery of therapeutic agents • Monitor treatment http://www.chicagonow.com/ http://www.keystonenano.com/library/images/moleculeAsmall.jpg Bawarski, Willie E. "Emerging Nanopharmaceuticals." Nanomedicine:Nanotechnology, Biology, and Medicine 4.4 (2008): 273-82. ScienceDirect. Web. 11 Apr. 2010. <http://sciencedirect.com>.

  6. What are Nanopharmaceuticals? • There are several noteworthy discoveries that include: • Liposomes • Polymeric micelles • Dendrimers • Quantum dots (QDs) • Particles can be: • Resistant to settling • Higher saturation solubility • Rapid dissolution • Enhanced adhesion to biological surfaces http://library.thinkquest.org/05aug/00736/images/nanomed.jpg Bawarski, Willie E. "Emerging Nanopharmaceuticals." Nanomedicine:Nanotechnology, Biology, and Medicine 4.4 (2008): 273-82. ScienceDirect. Web. 11 Apr. 2010. <http://sciencedirect.com>.

  7. Liposomes • Spherical vesicles composed of amphiphilic phospholipids and cholesterol • Encapsulate to have an aqueous interior • Useful for site specific drug deliver (DNA + Drugs) • Able to carry both hydrophobic and hydrophilic molecules • Limitations • Stability • Poor reproducibility • Difficulties sterilizing • Low drug loading Bawarski, Willie E. "Emerging Nanopharmaceuticals." Nanomedicine:Nanotechnology, Biology, and Medicine 4.4 (2008): 273-82. ScienceDirect. Web. 11 Apr. 2010. <http://sciencedirect.com>. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Liposome_scheme-en.svg

  8. Liposomes Bawarski, Willie E. "Emerging Nanopharmaceuticals." Nanomedicine:Nanotechnology, Biology, and Medicine 4.4 (2008): 273-82. ScienceDirect. Web. 11 Apr. 2010. <http://sciencedirect.com>. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/28/Liposome.jpg

  9. Liposome Both Images: http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.dadairs.com/Images/Phospholipid.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.dadairs.com/liposomes.htm&usg=__9X-SC8RdAWDN95MahCWuV2hoKRA=&h=244&w=596&sz=30&hl=en&start=23&sig2=VAOWtI1tbqNmhyantJ7ddA&um=1&itbs=1&tbnid=0_xBFtiK65-g_M:&tbnh=55&tbnw=135&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dphospholipid%26start%3D21%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN%26ndsp%3D21%26tbs%3Disch:1&ei=QaTYS9rAHMH48Abxp5HEBQ

  10. Polymeric Micelles • Spherical particles with a hydrophobic interior (core) and a hydrophilic exterior (shell) • Smaller than liposomes (50 nm vs. 400 nm diameter ) • Used to gradually release drugs and facilitate in vivo imaging • Useful for site specific drug delivery • Uses single tail lipids Bawarski, Willie E. "Emerging Nanopharmaceuticals." Nanomedicine:Nanotechnology, Biology, and Medicine 4.4 (2008): 273-82. ScienceDirect. Web. 11 Apr. 2010. <http://sciencedirect.com>. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Phospholipids_aqueous_solution_structures.svg

  11. Micelles • Spontaneously form by self-assembly • Composed of block or graft copolymers • PEG http://www.spsj.or.jp/c5/kobunshi/kobu2009/HT0901/0104.jpg http://www.scleroderma.org/images/medicalimages/research_advances/Figure-3_Receptor-Ligand.jpg Bawarski, Willie E. "Emerging Nanopharmaceuticals." Nanomedicine:Nanotechnology, Biology, and Medicine 4.4 (2008): 273-82. ScienceDirect. Web. 11 Apr. 2010. <http://sciencedirect.com>.

  12. Micelles Bawarski, Willie E. "Emerging Nanopharmaceuticals." Nanomedicine:Nanotechnology, Biology, and Medicine 4.4 (2008): 273-82. ScienceDirect. Web. 11 Apr. 2010. <http://sciencedirect.com>.

  13. Dendrimer • Polymeric macromolecules synthesized by a series of controlled polymerization reactions • Perfect 3-D structure • Countless cavities to hold therapeutic and diagnostic agents • Very useful antiviral agents • Able to inhibit viral binding • They can be “made to order” to fit target binding sites of specific viruses Bawarski, Willie E. "Emerging Nanopharmaceuticals." Nanomedicine:Nanotechnology, Biology, and Medicine 4.4 (2008): 273-82. ScienceDirect. Web. 11 Apr. 2010. <http://sciencedirect.com>. http://www.computerweekly.com/PhotoGalleries/233505/153_30_Nanoscale-Molecular-Dynamics-NAMD.jpg

  14. Dendrimer Converging Polymerization Diverging Polymerization Both Images: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/538_Convergent_synthesis.png

  15. Dendrimer http://www.unisa.edu.au/iwri/futurestudents/phdprojects/interf5.jpg http://www.unisa.edu.au/iwri/futurestudents/phdprojects/interf5.jpg Image: Bawarski, Willie E. "Emerging Nanopharmaceuticals." Nanomedicine:Nanotechnology, Biology, and Medicine 4.4 (2008): 273-82. ScienceDirect. Web. 11 Apr. 2010. <http://sciencedirect.com>.

  16. Quantum Dots • Colloidal semiconductor nanocrystals ranging from 2 to 10 nm in diameter • Cadmium-Selenium core covered by ZnS layer • CdSe emits in visible domain • Useful for bio-imaging • Produce much greater resolution than fluorescent dyes • Provide enough SA to attach therapeutic agents for simultaneous drug delivery and imaging http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/assets/images/2005/Jun-15/Q-dot_total_charge.jpg Bawarski, Willie E. "Emerging Nanopharmaceuticals." Nanomedicine:Nanotechnology, Biology, and Medicine 4.4 (2008): 273-82. ScienceDirect. Web. 11 Apr. 2010. <http://sciencedirect.com>.

  17. Quantum Dots http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/26/Quantum_dots_CPP.jpg/400px-Quantum_dots_CPP.jpg

  18. Toxicity • QDs can become cytotoxic • CdSe particles may leak cytotoxic cadmium ions after long term exposure to UV light • Dendrimers may be toxic because of their ability to disrupt cell memranes – positive charge on surface • Polymers must be: • Non-toxic • Non-Immunogenic • Degraded and excreted from the body http://www.livingpaleo.com/articles/images/chemical_toxicity.jpg Bawarski, Willie E. "Emerging Nanopharmaceuticals." Nanomedicine:Nanotechnology, Biology, and Medicine 4.4 (2008): 273-82. ScienceDirect. Web. 11 Apr. 2010. <http://sciencedirect.com>.

  19. Toxicity • Tremendous increase in applications of nanoparticles in • Industrial materials • Medical imaging • Disease diagnosis • Drug Delivery • Cancer treatment • Gene therapy • The possible health effects associate with human exposure is largely unexplored • Adverse/unintended health effects http://nano.med.umich.edu/Graphics/Menu-Dendrimer-Floating-189.jpg Bawarski, Willie E. "Emerging Nanopharmaceuticals." Nanomedicine:Nanotechnology, Biology, and Medicine 4.4 (2008): 273-82. ScienceDirect. Web. 11 Apr. 2010. <http://sciencedirect.com>.

  20. Products on the Market

  21. http://www.iopraipur.ac.in/download/Madam%20Saraf%20Article%20for%20Magzine.pdfhttp://www.iopraipur.ac.in/download/Madam%20Saraf%20Article%20for%20Magzine.pdf

  22. http://img84.imageshack.us/i/antimicrobialfig1ba8.jpg/ P. Shah, D. Bhalodia, P. Shelat - SaraswatiInstitue of Pharmeceutical Sciences, Gujarat, India Nanoemulsion: A Pharmaceutical review

  23. What Are They? • Submicron sized emulsions – potential drug carriers for improving delivery of therapeutic agents • Thermodynamically stable isotropic system – two immiscible liquids are mixed to form a single phase • In the range of 20-200 nm • Cosmetics, diagnostics, drug therapies, biotechnologies http://www.grandchallenges.org/SiteCollectionImages/img_generic_project.jpg P, Shah, Bhalodia D, and Shelat P. "Nanoemulsion: A Pharmaceutical Review." Sys Rev Pharm 1.1 (2010): 24-32. Web. 20 Apr. 2010.

  24. Nanoemulsions • Oil-in-water (o/w) emulsions (core either oil or water) • Mean droplet diameter ranging from 50-1000 nm • Easily produced in large quantities by mixing water- immiscible oil phase into an aqueous phase with a high stress mechanical extrusion process • Main application – preparation of nanoparticles using a polymerizable monomer as the disperse phase where NE droplets act as nanoreactors Nano vs. Macro Emulsions • Size of droplets – temperature and • composition P, Shah, Bhalodia D, and Shelat P. "Nanoemulsion: A Pharmaceutical Review." Sys Rev Pharm 1.1 (2010): 24-32. Web. 20 Apr. 2010.

  25. Advantages of Nanoemulsions • Have a much higher surface area and free energy – effective transport system • Do not show the problems of inherent creaming, flocculation, coalescence, and sedimentation • Can be formulated in foams, creams, liquids, and sprays • Non-toxic and non-irritant – can be easily applied to skin and mucous membranes • Do not damage healthy human and animal cells http://image3.examiner.com/images/blog/EXID10128/slideshows/bubble%20foam%202.JPG P, Shah, Bhalodia D, and Shelat P. "Nanoemulsion: A Pharmaceutical Review." Sys Rev Pharm 1.1 (2010): 24-32. Web. 20 Apr. 2010. http://nano.med.umich.edu/Platforms/Bioterrorism-trivalent-vaccine.html

  26. Methods of Preparation • High Pressure Homogenization • Makes use of high pressure homogenizer to produce NE’s of extremely low size (up to 1nm) • Microfluidization • Mixing procedure which uses microfluidizer • High pressure pump forces product through interaction channels • Coarse emulsion – run through a microfluidizer and is further processed • Bulk emulsion is filtered to remove large droplets – results in uniform NE P, Shah, Bhalodia D, and Shelat P. "Nanoemulsion: A Pharmaceutical Review." Sys Rev Pharm 1.1 (2010): 24-32. Web. 20 Apr. 2010.

  27. Applications of Nanoemulsions • Cosmetics • Antimicrobial nanoemulsions • Prophylactic in bio-terrorism attack • Mucosal vaccines • Non-toxic disinfectant cleaner • Cell culture technology • Cancer therapy • Targeted drug delivery • Treatment of other diseases • Oral delivery of poorly soluble drugs • Transdermal delivery http://www.nanoid.co.uk/images/page11image.jpg P, Shah, Bhalodia D, and Shelat P. "Nanoemulsion: A Pharmaceutical Review." Sys Rev Pharm 1.1 (2010): 24-32. Web. 20 Apr. 2010. http://www.medgadget.com/archives/img/46352str1.jpg http://nano.med.umich.edu/Graphics/Menu-AntimicrobialNanoemImageSq189.jpg

  28. Cosmetics http://www.happi.com/articles/2008/05/images/Skin-WebClinique150(1).jpg • More suitable for the transport of lipophilic compounds than liposomes • Support skin penetration of active ingredients • KemiraNanoGel® – enhances efficacy of skin care products • Particularly useful for sun care products, moisturizing creams, and anti-aging creams • Minimizes trans-epidermal water loss, enhanced skin production, and penetration of active ingredients P, Shah, Bhalodia D, and Shelat P. "Nanoemulsion: A Pharmaceutical Review." Sys Rev Pharm 1.1 (2010): 24-32. Web. 20 Apr. 2010. http://www.xtend-life.com/Images/skincare/coq10.gif

  29. Antimicrobial Nanoemulsions • Composed of oil and water, stabilized by surfactants and alcohol • 200-600 nm range • Works against: • Bacteria (E. coli, Salmonella, S. aureus) • Enveloped viruses (HIV, Herpes simplex) • Fungi (Candida, Dermatophytes) • Spores (anthrax) • Thermodynamically driven to fuse with lipid-containing organisms • When enough nanoparticles fuse with pathogens – release part of energy trapped within emulsion • Active ingredient and energy release cause cell lysis and death • Selective toxicity to microbes at concentrations are non-irritating to skin or mucous membrane http://www.9point87.com http://sustainabledesignupdate.com/wp-content/uploads/2007/11/bacteria.jpg http://www.wvdhhr.org/labservices/shared/images/virology/influenza_projections.jpg http://www.sciencenetlinks.com/images/interactive/fungi.jpg P, Shah, Bhalodia D, and Shelat P. "Nanoemulsion: A Pharmaceutical Review." Sys Rev Pharm 1.1 (2010): 24-32. Web. 20 Apr. 2010.

  30. http://www.upenn.edu/gazette/1297/images/dykes.jpg AdnanNasir – Department of Dermatology University of North Carolina Nanotechnology in vaccine development

  31. Motivation • Five of the top ten causes of death in the world are from infectious diseases • Epicutaneous vaccination • Powerful and sustained immune responses • Antigen dilution to 1/5 • Reducing vaccine cost • Increasing vaccine availability Nasir, Adnan. "Nanotechnology in Vaccine Development." Investigative Dermatology 129 (2009): 1055-059. Web. 20 Apr. 2010.

  32. How Nanomaterials Penetrate Skin • Skin contains both active and passive barrier defenses – need to bypass • Nanomaterials enter the skin through the follicular route • Diminishes with increasing nanomaterial size • Larger than 100 nm can not penetrate unbroken skin • Nanomaterials/vehicles can be modified to enter skin more efficiently Nasir, Adnan. "Nanotechnology in Vaccine Development." Investigative Dermatology 129 (2009): 1055-059. Web. 20 Apr. 2010. http://www.clarian.org/ADAM/doc/graphics/images/en/8912.jpg

  33. Mouse Model for Testing Nanomaterial Penetration and Immunogenicity • Increase the potential for nanomaterials to enter the skin by three methods • Skin where antigen is applied was tape-stripped • May decrease barrier function but may increase expression of immuno-stimulatory surface markers • Mice were anesthetized for 1 hour to allow for undisturbed infiltration of applied material • Selected the C57BL/6 inbred mouse strain • unique immunological and behavioral properties Nasir, Adnan. "Nanotechnology in Vaccine Development." Investigative Dermatology 129 (2009): 1055-059. Web. 20 Apr. 2010. http://www.medgadget.com/archives/img/413431mo.jpg

  34. Method of Mouse Adsorption of Topically Applied Nanoparticles Nasir, Adnan. "Nanotechnology in Vaccine Development." Investigative Dermatology 129 (2009): 1055-059. Web. 20 Apr. 2010.

  35. Results • Nanomaterials can penetrate tape-stripped skin • In vivoconfocal laser scanning microscopy demonstrated accumulation of antigen particles • Found round aggregates at 80μm – location of hair folicles • Initial distribution was compact after 5 hours but diffused over 24 hours • Epidermal cells were harvested periodically • Suggested rapid accumulation of nanoparticles in hair follicles, attachment to and uptake by dendritic cells, and migration of dendritic cells to lymph node http://anaximperator.files.wordpress.com/2010/02/dendritic-cell.png

  36. Laser Scanning Microscopy of Fluorescent Particles Nasir, Adnan. "Nanotechnology in Vaccine Development." Investigative Dermatology 129 (2009): 1055-059. Web. 20 Apr. 2010.

  37. Impact of Research • Nanoparticles 40 -200nm can effectively penetrate tape-stripped skin and enter lymph nodes via dendritic cells • Helps with vaccine design and development • Preliminary data helped with developing HIV vaccine clinical trials • Develop next generation vaccines – easy application, transportability, stability, compact size, specific targeting, and enhanced effectiveness Nasir, Adnan. "Nanotechnology in Vaccine Development." Investigative Dermatology 129 (2009): 1055-059. Web. 20 Apr. 2010. http://www.district196.org/cp/Images/Graphics%20and%20Clipart/HBV%20Vaccine.gif

  38. http://i.ehow.com/images/a04/r2/77/effectiveness-aids-treatments-800X800.jpghttp://i.ehow.com/images/a04/r2/77/effectiveness-aids-treatments-800X800.jpg Jose das Neves, MansoorAmiji, Maria Bahia, Bruno Sarmento – University of Porto, Portugal and Northeastern University, Boston Nanotechnology-based systems for the treatment and prevention of HIV/aids

  39. Motivation http://www.hanci.com/app/webroot/files/World_Aids_Day_Ribbon.png • 33 million people infected by HIV worldwide, 25 million have already died since 1981 • Transmission process and pathogenesis of HIV infection – essential to develop better treatments • HIV persists in body in reservoir sites – able to protect the virus from biological elimination pathways, immune response, and antiretroviral drugs • Need a novel way to eradicate the virus • Nanotechnology based systems Neves, Jose, Mansoor M. Amiji, Maria Bahia, and Bruno Sarmento. "Nanotechnology Based Systems for the Treatment and Prevention of HIV/Aids." Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 62 (2010): 458-77. Elsevier. 20 Apr. 2010. http://thesegoto11.files.wordpress.com/2008/11/aids_virus_dh_561db385.jpg

  40. Why Are Nanosystems Favored? • Drug absorption governed by the nanosystems physical-chemical properties (surface exposed, electric charge, and size) • Versatility, possibility of drug-release modulation, high drug payloads, relative low cost, easiness to produce, adequate shelf life, etc. • Can use either active or passive targeting • Inherent properties of different nanosystems • Modification of nanotechnology systems • Possibility of incorporating several different antiretroviral drugs in the same delivery system with different release times • Intracellular, Lymphatic system, Central Nervous system http://www.technologyassessment.info/images/aarhus%20drug%20delivery.jpg Neves, Jose, Mansoor M. Amiji, Maria Bahia, and Bruno Sarmento. "Nanotechnology Based Systems for the Treatment and Prevention of HIV/Aids." Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 62 (2010): 458-77. Elsevier. 20 Apr. 2010.

  41. Intracellular Delivery • Macrophages focus of most studies • Phagocytic cells - responsible for uptake & clearance of drug-loaded nanoparticles • Polyethylene oxide-modified polyepsilon-caprolactonenanoparticle uptake studied • Positive results • 10 fold increase inuptake Neves, Jose, Mansoor M. Amiji, Maria Bahia, and Bruno Sarmento. "Nanotechnology Based Systems for the Treatment and Prevention of HIV/Aids." Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 62 (2010): 458-77. Elsevier. 20 Apr. 2010.

  42. Lymphatic System Delivery • Wide amounts of HIV-susceptible immune cells in lymphoid organs – targeting locations • Transdermally, intravenously, orally • Liposomes and SLNs were found to be most effective carriers • Localized drug concentration varies with lymph node/plasma ratio • In one study liposomes used to deliver antiretroviral drug to lymphoid organs • Successful in active drug-targeting lymphoid tissues while maintaining anti-HIV activity of the drug in vitro http://gb.fotolibra.com/images/thumbnails/49974-lymph-node-illustration.jpeg Neves, Jose, Mansoor M. Amiji, Maria Bahia, and Bruno Sarmento. "Nanotechnology Based Systems for the Treatment and Prevention of HIV/Aids." Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 62 (2010): 458-77. Elsevier. 20 Apr. 2010.

  43. Central Nervous System Delivery • Blood-brain barrier contains tight cells junctions – obstacle to deliver drugs • Achieve higher concentration of encapsulated drugs and prolonged residence in the CNS • PLA nanoparticles conjugated with HIV-1 trans-activating transcriptor successfully transported through the brain without damage to BBB integrity • 2 weeks after administration drug concentrations 800 times higher Neves, Jose, Mansoor M. Amiji, Maria Bahia, and Bruno Sarmento. "Nanotechnology Based Systems for the Treatment and Prevention of HIV/Aids." Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 62 (2010): 458-77. Elsevier. 20 Apr. 2010.

  44. Prevention of HIV/AIDS http://trendsupdates.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/07/HIV-VACCINE1.jpg • Vaccines – current in vivo performance meager – poor protection and delivery of immunogenic molecules • Current vaccines – high aluminum content • One example: anti-HIV-2 nanoparticle-based vaccine comprising 150nm complexes of plasmid DNA • Significantly improved antibody expression levels – nanostructure able to protect plasmid DNA from lysosomal degradation • Several experimental results have shown that nanosystems can be very effective in the development of anti-HIV vaccines Neves, Jose, Mansoor M. Amiji, Maria Bahia, and Bruno Sarmento. "Nanotechnology Based Systems for the Treatment and Prevention of HIV/Aids." Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 62 (2010): 458-77. Elsevier. 20 Apr. 2010. http://www.promega.com/enotes/applications/images/ap0074_fig2.jpg

  45. Future Impacts • Even if HIV/AIDS can not be cured, several improvements can be made in the treatment • Human clinical trials will probably start soon • Nanotechnology-based systems may revive some previously discarded drugs • Recent rise in nanotechnology-based pharmaceutical companies • reduce cost of developing drugs • Potential support form non-profit organizations, government, public agencies • Biggest savings may be in hindering the HIV/AIDS pandemic http://www.qbtpl.net/images/Clinic.jpg Neves, Jose, Mansoor M. Amiji, Maria Bahia, and Bruno Sarmento. "Nanotechnology Based Systems for the Treatment and Prevention of HIV/Aids." Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 62 (2010): 458-77. Elsevier. 20 Apr. 2010.

  46. http://www.ndsu.edu/research/images/Generic_scientist_blue.JPGhttp://www.ndsu.edu/research/images/Generic_scientist_blue.JPG Further Research

  47. Nanovaccines • What happens to nanomaterials applied on nonfollicular skin • Determine optimum conditions for adsorption of medicine by skin • If multiple vaccines be delivered at one time • Shape of nanoparticles (cylindrical or spherical) – which is more readily taken up by cells • Economic feasibility • Toxic effects (short & long term) Nasir, Adnan. "Nanotechnology in Vaccine Development." Investigative Dermatology 129 (2009): 1055-059. Web. 20 Apr. 2010. http://www.hivplusmag.com/plus_weekly_email/images_rf/macro_needleinhand.jpg

  48. Drug Delivery Problems • The major struggle surrounding the administration of anticancer drugs is them being able to differentiate between cancerous and normal cells. • This is responsible for the adverse effects of conventional therapies in use today. • This can be aided by the further research of these targeted nanomedicines, which can help reduce the adverse effects of the current treatments. http://www.healthjockey.com/images/cancer-cell-soft.jpg

  49. Drug Delivery Problems • Passive targeting of tumors with nanoparticles takes advantage of impaired lymphatic drainage of the tumor cells which leads to an accumulation in these cells. • However, further research can be done on active targeting nanomedicines, which is made possible through specific interactions with the cells, this would help to create better targeting properties, thus increasing the effectiveness of the delivery of these drugs. http://api.ning.com/files/gWgupXPUw*REbujHQb5TmguoAroqoUhp54yznBBNxELUCyHySS4Kd1vNgnZmeo5XN5Ayt5CjZM-S0G0j8vMyNT6Y-HNalyHB/nanoparticles.jpg

  50. Nanocar • Rice researchers have constructed the worlds smallest car it is composed of 4 C60 molecules (the tires) and a chassis made up of connecting organic molecules, with a footprint of just 3 by 4 nm. • Further research into similar devices could be key into helping in the delivery of oral peptides such as insulin. • Peptides suffer from many setbacks one being the its limited permeability through cell membranes, fusing these peptides with such delivery systems as discussed above will help the delivery of these medicines. http://www.zmogo.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/12/nanocar.jpg

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