The

1. The Almoravid and Almohad Empires The Almoravids

2. TheAlmoravidEmpire At Fullest Expansion

3. Almoravids and Almohads Context: Tripartite Caliphate • Umayyad (Sunni Islam) – Andalusia/Cordoba [ongoing threats from Christian ‘Franks’ • Fatimids (Shia Islam) – Maghreb/Egypt • Abbasids (Sunni Islam) – Asia (Iraq/Iran)[ongoing threats from ‘Turks’ central Asia]

4. BYZANTINEEMPIRE ABBASID EMPIRE FATIMID EMPIRE

5. Almoravids and Almohads Context: Tripartite Caliphate • political/religious divisions DID NOT impede cultural, commercial relations • Commerce especially important: from sub-Saharan Africa, to Maghreb, to Europe, to Asia – and back!

6. Major International Trade Networks

7. Almoravids and Almohads • Ideological belief differences (i.e. Shia, Kharijite, Sunni etc.) • Dynastic differences (Umayyads, Fatimids, Abbasids etc.) • DID NOT impede the practice of Islam….

8. Almoravids and Almohads Practice of Islam: • One of ‘pillars’ of Islam: if at all possible, every Muslim should make the Pilgrimage to (pray at) the Kaaba in Mecca • Brought Muslims from ALL parts of Islamic world together and ‘through’ that world

9. “Making the hajj to Mecca from Africa” (no date)

10. Almoravids and Almohads • Pilgrimage generated shared knowledge and experience • Also genre of writing: became common to write/publish accounts of pilgrimage which contributed to ‘world’ of Islamic knowledge • Travels took many months (overland); often years

11. Almoravids and Almohads North Africa: • Population still mostly Berber (some Christians, Jews in main cities) • Several Berber ‘Muslim’ states emerged 8th-9th centuries [last lecture] • Became part of expansive Fatimid Caliphate but retained much local autonomy

12. Almoravids and Almohads North African Islamic World in 11th Century: • Also extended to southern side of mountains in Ifriqiyya: the Sahara desert • (contemporary Morocco, Mauritania): major tribes Sanhaja – made up of ‘clans’ such as Guddala, Lamtuna, Lamta, Massufa….

13. Almoravids and Almohads Origins of Almoravids: Sanhaja clan • Leader (Guddala) Yahya b. Ibrahim made pilgrimage • Influenced by culture, law he saw in North African centres • Especially impressed by ‘Malikism

14. MASUDA AlmoravidEmpire -- 11th Century MASSUFA LAMTUNA GUDDALA

15. Almoravids and Almohads Malikism: • Significance: adherence to ‘tradition’ of the Prophet and the Mecca/Medina historical experience • so: ‘traditional’ – intolerant compared to some other ‘schools’ of thought developing • Not accepting of Shi’ism or Kharijitism

16. Almoravids and Almohads Islamic Law: • Since Rashidun Caliphate and ‘evolution of Islam’: different schools of interpretation developing • No one school dominant; scholars shared ideas – no clear ‘boundaries’ (yet) by 11th century [topic of last week, Ch. 6 of Bennison]

17. Almoravids and Almohads Significance in Saharan Context: • b. Ibrahim saw his desert tribe ‘falling short’ of perfection (or at least as he’d observed it in various learning centres) • Different versions of story [Bennison] but on return sought out ‘teacher’ to take back with him[see also al-Bakri]

18. Almoravids and Almohads Abd Allah b. Yasin: • Brought message of strict adherence to Islam • Sought ‘followers’ (among b. Ibrahim’s clan): in time formed ‘following’ that supported movement – withdrew to ribat (sanctuary), comparable to Prophet Mohamed’s hijra

19. Almoravids and Almohads Almoravids ‘born’: al murabitun • physical place (if it existed): cannot be identified, possibly ‘coastal’ but only hypothesis • Marked shift to next phase: from encouragement to coercion

20. Almoravids and Almohads Jihad or holy war’: Dual meaning --both seclusion and war • ‘ribat’ : internal, personal ‘war’ - process of purification • ‘jihad’: external, public ‘war’ -- process of conversion

21. Almoravids and Almohads Internecine War: • When b. Yasin’s ‘patron’ (b. Ibrahim) died, some rejected his leadership (and form of religion) • Succession dispute favouredYahya b. Umar (matrilineal choice): he favoured b. Yasin’s movement – but from Lamtuna clan, so ‘shift’ in leadership

22. Almoravids and Almohads In 1050s: ‘triumvirate’ of b. Yasin, Yahya b. Umar and (his brother) Abu Bakr jointly headed ‘Almoravid’ movement • b. Umar brothers brought the military backing b. Yasin that he needed • Strategy now shifted from ‘encouraging’ to ‘enforcing’ change to stricter Islamic law

23. Almoravids and Almohads A Sanhaja Federation: al-murabutin • Now able to ‘correct’ religious practices among other Sanhaja clans by force • Simultaneously: created one ‘military federation’ out of multiple desert groups previously in competition for resources

24. MASUDA Almoravids:‘DesertFederation’ Of Sanhaja Clans MASSUFA LAMTUNA GUDDALA

25. Almoravids and Almohads Almoravids (now ‘a military movement):

26. Almoravids and Almohads Turned north to actual ‘non-Muslim’ Berbers in the High Atlas Mountains Expanded activities into rich Dra’a valley: date-palm groves, agriculture, commercial centres

27. Dra’a Valley [follows Dra’a River]

29. AlmoravidMovements – Note: area of Ribat unknown * * * Salt mine *

30. Almoravids and Almohads [Bennison]: • Makes point that initial Almoravid ‘beliefs’ and ‘ambitions’ were complex: - genuine religious ‘fervour’: belief in Maliki law - equally real political ambition (power) - understanding that Islam should be ONE umma (community), have ONE emir (leader)

31. Almoravids and Almohads Economic Base: resources and commodities • Sought control of desert resources [pasture, water, salt, pastorally-produced goods – leather, milk; most importantly camels] • Sought control of trans-Saharan trade [based on the above, but also other commodities – gold, salt, slaves from south; cloth from north]

32. Almoravidsand Trans-SaharanTradeNetworks x = Salt deposits x x = Gold Fields

33. Almoravids and Almohads Trans-Saharan Trade, Regional Economies: • Often missed (in literature): Almoravids not only trying to control trade across the Sahara but the desert resources that supported that commerce • Territory/tribes ‘between’ commercial centres critical to their economic and political power

34. Almoravids and Almohads Sijilmassa – Awdaghust: targets for Almoravid control • Each ‘desert-edge’ city marking north, south (respectively) nodes of trans-Saharan trade • Each (in turn) connected into regional and (in north), international commercial networks

35. Almoravids and Almohads Sijilmassa 1054/5: first target (history well known [see also al-Bakri]) • Controlled by Kharijites – constituted legitimate jihad • No submission: full destruction of town • Military garrison built: failed to ‘hold’ the city

36. Almoravids and Almohads Critical moment: Almoravids needed to re-take Sijilmassa Guddala refused: preferred the desert b. Umar killed in retaliatory battle (1055/6) Sijilmassa later re-conquered

37. Almoravids and Almohads Critical moment: left movement in hands of Ibn Yasin and Abu Bakr continued ‘northward’ looking: Atlas Mountains

38. Almoravids and Almohads sought alliance with mountain tribes (Masmuda) successfully occupied Aghmat: city to north of mountains: commercial centre Kharijite population: jihad again had legitimacy the beginning of Maghreb expansion [will return to, below]

39. Almoravids and Almohads Video Excerpt: “The Almoravids and Almohads: the Berber Empires” [1:30 – 12:40]

40. Almoravids and Almohads Awdaghust: south of the Sahara • 10th century, in hands of ‘Sanhaja’ Chief • 11th century (seemingly) subservient to Ghana (non-Muslim) • Kingdom controlled gold production/trade; slave raiding/trading

41. Almoravids and Almohads [Bennison] Story of Awdaghust and Ghana ‘controversial’ • Argues we know little for sure: Almoravids ‘attack’ Awdaghust 1055/6: do they establish control? • Do they ‘conquer’ Ghana itself 1076? • Major ‘historiographical’ controversy

42. Almoravids and Almohads “Conquest that never was . . .”: • long argued that ‘Conquest of Ghana by the Almoravids in 1076’ one of most significant moments West African history – part of jihad that brought them to Awdaghust • credited with bringing Islam, trade, North African influence into sub-Saharan Africa

43. Almoravids and Almohads “Conquest that never was . . .”: • hypothesis challenged 1980s: both written and oral evidence ‘silent’ on supposed momentous event [Conrad, Fisher] • reconsideration: ‘silence’ not always conclusive [Burkhalter]

44. Almoravids and Almohads “Conquest that never was. . .”: • Bennison: leaves ambiguous conclusion • “The View from Awdaghust”: no evidence of destruction city in 11th century – supports argument that there was no (later) conquest of Ghana’s capital [‘recommended reading]

45. Almoravids and Almohads in larger context: Awdaghust probably declined from resource depletion, drought not ‘conquest and destruction’ ‘conquest’ of Ghana likely one of negotiation consistent with evidence and with Islamic and Almoravid expansion in general [see below: expansion in Maghreb]

46. Almoravids and Almohads Conversion: [Bennison] Ghana did ultimately become Muslim but no evidence that this was because of conquest ‘tradition’ (oral): ties conversion Ghana’s King to years of drought, influence of Muslim merchants

47. Almoravids and Almohads Returning to ‘Northern Almoravids’: [Bennison] underlines importance of negotiation and seeking of ‘local interlocutors’ Cites story of Zaynab as example: widow of local prominent merchant married Abu Bakr ‘bringing both political alliance and wealth to Almoravid movement’

48. MASUDA Almoravids:‘MaghrebandAndalusianExpansion MASSUFA LAMTUNA GUDDALA

49. Almoravids and Almohads [Bennison] that the new Almoravid empire was not only founded on military conquest (as is always ‘celebrated’) but on the establishment of alliances through negotiation, marriage etc. exactly as we have seen elsewhere in the newly emergent Islamic world: is this about Islam or….??

50. Almoravids and Almohads New Capital for the North: Almoravids ‘outlive welcome’ in Aghmat: established new Capital on territory lying between two important ‘clans’ in region Marakesh: rapidly became administrative and commercial centre of ‘northern’ Almoravids