SOCIOLOGY “THE BARE BONES”

1. SOCIOLOGY“THE BARE BONES” “must haves” for EVERY STUDENT!!!

2. CHAPTER 1 THE SOCIOLOGICAL POINT OF VIEW

3. Sociology: the social science that studies human society & social behavior How does Sociology compare/contrast with other Social Sciences? • Anthropology: the comparative study of past & present cultures • leans to past/uncivilized instead of present/advanced • Psychology: behavior & thinking of organisms • individual behavior over group behavior • Social Psychology: study of how social environments affect individual’s behavior/personality • Economics: study of how people make efforts to satisfy needs & wants • leans towards impersonal data • Political Science: examination of the organization/operation of governments • Sociology leans towards effects of governments on people • History: study of past events • past overall instead of past’s effects on people

4. The Founders of Sociology (Quick History!) • Auguste Conte: founder of sociology (coined term) • applied methods of physical science towards study of social life • Herbert Spencer: applied teachings of Charles Darwin towards society • Social Darwinism: “survival of the fittest” amongst societies over time • Karl Marx: society’s structure directly defined by the economy • bourgeoisie: capitalists • proletariat: workers • eventually, workers will rise up & create classless society • Emile’ Durkheim: the observation of society based purely on observable data/statistical analysis • Max Weber: understand individual by putting them into the group • Verstehen: puts oneself in the shoes of another • Ideal Type: the combination of society’s ideal characteristics

5. CHAPTER 2 CULTURAL DIVERSITY

6. Culture: all the shared products of human groups Material Culture:Nonmaterial Culture: physical objects that people create & use abstract human creations Examples:Examples: automobiles, books, buildings, clothing, beliefs, family patterns, computers & cooking ideas, language, political & economic systems & rules Components of Culture • technology: culture’s physical objects & rules to use • symbols: represents something else • language: organization of written or spoken symbols into standardized system • values: shared beliefs about right/wrong, good/bad, desirable/undesirable • norms: shared rules of conduct in specific situations Examining Culture • culture traits: individual tool, act or belief related to particular situation/need • culture complexes: cluster of interrelated traits • culture patterns: combination of a number of culture complexes into interrelated whole

7. Cultural Universals: features common to all cultures that must be met to ensure fulfillment George Murdock (1940s): 65 cultural universals • body adornment, cooking, dancing, family, feasting, forms of greeting, funeral ceremonies, gift giving, housing, language, medicine, myths/folklore, religion, sports, toolmaking EthnocentrismCultural Relativism the tendency to view one’s own belief that a culture should be culture & group as superior judged by its own standards to other different cultures rather than by those of a different culture Examples vary:Examples vary: labeling another culture as examining how another society inferior based on technology views its dress or diet Culture SubcultureCounterculture groups that share values, norms group rejecting mainstream values, & behaviors not shared by entire norms & practices & adapting a population new set of beliefs ---age, gender, ethnic, religious, ---cyberpunk movement, political, geographic, social-class, anarchists, organized crime occupational families, hippie movements of the 1960s

8. CHAPTER 3 CULTURAL CONFORMITY & ADAPTATION

9. Robin Williams: Traditional American Values • personal achievement • individualism • work • morality & humanitarianism • efficiency & practicality • progress & material comfort • equality & democracy • freedom • nationalism & patriotism • science & rationality • racial & group superiority

10. Enforcement of Social Norms InternalizationSanctions how a norm becomes a part of a person’s rewards or punishments personality, thus conditioning the person used to enforce conformity to conform to society’s expectations to norms PositiveNegative action that rewards a particular punishment or the threat of kind of behavior punishment to enforce conformity FormalInformal reward or punishment by a spontaneous expression of formal organization or regulatory disapproval or disapproval by an agency, such as government individual or group Source of Social Change Example Social Consequences • values & beliefs • technology • population • diffusion • physical environment • wars & conquests

11. CHAPTER 4 SOCIAL STRUCTURE

12. social structure: the network of interrelated statuses & roles that guide human interaction status: a socially defined position in a group or in a society role: the behavior (the rights & obligations) expected of someone occupying a particular status Status Examples of Roles Examples of Conflict/Strain_______ firefighter putting out fires, saving lives, voluntarily puts self in danger but wearing a uniform has loved ones who need him or her mother providing food & shelter, work fatigue & long shifts make nurturing family, disciplining household tasks & interactions children difficult P.T.A. president running meetings, recruiting has trouble getting members to new members, planning attend & follow through on promises activities Reciprocity Exchange Theory Types of Social Interaction: 1) exchange 2) competition 3) conflict 4) cooperation 5) accommodation group: a set of people who interact on the basis of shared expectations & who possess some degree of common identity subsistence strategies:the way a society uses technology to provide for the needs of its members Types of Societies: Preindustrial: hunting & gathering; pastoral; horticultural; mechanical solidarity → agricultural Industrial: manufacturing → urban; technology; organic solidarity Postindustrial: information; provision of services

13. The Continuum of Primary-Secondary Relationships Primary Group Relationships Secondary Group Relationships family groups of friends school club classroom job Group Functions: 1) define boundaries 2) select leaders 3) set goals 4) assign tasks 5) make decisions 6) control members’ behavior formal organization: a large, complex secondary group that has been established to achieve specific goals bureaucracy: ranked authority structure that operates according to specific rules & procedures rationality: subjecting every feature of human behavior to calculation, measurement & control SAMPLE BEAUCRATIC HEIRARCHY Head of the Bureaucracy (CEO, superintendent, president, etc.) ↓ ↓ VP/department head VP/department head ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ (subordinates) ↓ ↓

14. CHAPTER 5 SOCIALIZING THE INDIVIDUAL

15. personality: the sum total of behaviors, attitudes, beliefs & values that are characteristic of an individual Factors That Shape Individual Personality Development heredity birth order ____________ physical traits, aptitudes, inherited if they have siblings & if so, order of birth characteristics, biological drives compared to him or her parents cultural environment_________________ parental characteristics: such as age, determines the basic personality types education, religion & economic status found in society ??? NATURE vs. NURTURE ??? socialization: the interactive process through which people learn the basic skills, values, beliefs & behavior patterns of a society Name Process of Socialization Theory _____ John Locke Tabula Rasa: each person is a blank slate at birth, with no personality People develop personality as a result of their social experiences. Moreover, infants can be molded into any type of person. Charles Horton Looking Glass Self: infants have no sense of person or place. Cooley Children develop an image of themselves based on how others see them. Other people act as a mirror, reflecting back the image a child projects through their reactions to the child’s behavior.

16. George Herbert Role Taking:people not only come to see themselves as others see them but also take on or pretend to take on the roles of others through imitation, play & games. This process enables people to anticipate what others expect of them. agents of socialization: the specific individuals, groups & institutions that enable socialization to take place i.e. the family, the peer group, the school, the mass media Mass Media as a Socialization Agent: • mass media includes books, films, the Internet, magazines, newspapers, radio & television • television probably as the most influence on children • the effect of television on children is an ongoing debate

17. CHAPTER 6 THE ADOLESCENT IN SOCIETY

18. adolescence:the period between the normal onset of puberty & the beginning of adulthood puberty:the physical maturing that makes an individual capable of sexual reproduction Prior to 1860s adolescence did not exist as a separate life stage. children were treated as small adults. Education Work Courts children stay in school laws restricted child juvenile-justice longer; extended period labor, also increasing system legally of dependence length of dependency distinguished b/w youth & adults Effect development of adolescence as a distinct life stage b/w childhood & adulthood Characteristics of Adolescence: • biological growth & development • undefined status • increased decision making • increased pressure • the search for self

19. dating: the meeting of people as a romantic engagement (in societies that allow individuals to choose their own marriage partners) courtship: express purpose is eventual marriage →dating may lead to marriage, but casually for, entertainment & amusement  Cause Effect Industrial Revolution people moved from the farms to the cities, where young adults could gain more economic freedom & their own homes. as a result, parental control over young adults & courtship decreased Public Education by the 1900s, most secondary-school students attended coeducational public schools, which increased interaction between boys & girls Automobile young adults had more freedom of movement away from parents Telephone young adults could more easily talk to members of the opposite sex Equality of Women more women entered the workforce & took on more active community roles, which increased the interaction b/w single adult men & women

20. Problem Causes Consequences________ Teenage Sexual Behavior loosening of norms concerning teenage pregnancy; sexuality; low-income, one-parent exposure to or families acquiring STDs such as syphilis or AIDS Teenage Drug Use dropping out of school; having increase in the use friends who use drugs; social & of some drugs academic adjustment problems; among teens; hostile & rejecting family settings increase in drug- related violence Teenage Suicide alcohol or drug use; triggering death; possible cluster events such as family crisis or effects leading to other trials of adolescence; teenage suicides; rise being female; social isolation; in U.S. teenage living in an underpopulated area; bad family suicide rate; teen environment; cluster effect suicide rate now from publicized suicides exceeds that for adults

21. CHAPTER 7 THE ADULT IN SOCIETY

22. life structure: the combination of statuses of roles, activities, goals, values, beliefs & life circumstances that characterize an individual Ages: Early Adulthood Era 17-22 Early Adult Transition • Entering the Adult World • Age 30 Transition • Settling Down Period Middle Adulthood Era 40-44 Midlife Transition • Entering Middle Adulthood • Age 50 Transition • Culmination of Middle Adulthood Late Adulthood Era 60-64 Late Adult Transition 65-75+ Late Adult Transition

23. Phases of Adult Female Development Phase 1: Leaving the Family characteristics: young women leave home, break from their parents & form a life planwith an emphasis on marriage over establishing a career Phase 2: Entering the Adult World characteristics: many women, often in their 20s, marry & have children. More than ½ combine work & motherhood. Others leave work, which limits later job opportunities Phase 3: Entering the Adult World Again characteristics: many women, often in their early 30s, return to work after their children start school. They then pursue their career goals, similar to men in their 20s Percentage Distribution of Working Women by Marital Status, 2000 • 53% Married • 27% Single • 20% Widowed, Divorced or Separated

24. CHAPTER 8 DEVIANCE & SOCIAL CONTROL

25. deviance: behavior that violates significant social norms stigma: mark of social disgrace that sets the deviant apart from the rest of society Perspective Theory Questions _____ FunctionalistStrain how do individuals respond to culturally approved goals & the legitimate means of achieving them? (conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, rebellion) ConflictConflict what is the result of competition & social inequality? (deviance) who decides what is deviant? (ruling classes) InteractionistControl why do people conform to norms? (the strength of social ties determines conformity) Cultural how do people learn conformity or deviance? (through Transmission socialization, or interaction with others) where does this learning mainly occur? (primary groups) Labeling how do people become identified as deviant? (through secondary deviance, or labeled as deviant)

26. crime: any act that is labeled as such by those in authority, is prohibited by law & is punishable by the government. American Criminal-Justice System Police Courts have the most control over who is arrested determines the accused’s guilt for crimes; use police discretion, which has or innocence in a court trial & raised the controversial issue of racial then assigns a punishment; profiling actually settles 90% of cases through plea bargaining Corrections Juvenile-Justice System includes probation, imprisonment, parole; applies to offenders younger serves 4 functions: retribution, deterrence, than 18; guarantees juvenile rehabilitation & social protection defendants the same legal rights & privileges as adults; often provides more services

27. CHAPTER 9 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

28. social stratification:the division of society into categories, ranks, or classes social inequality:the unequal sharing of scarce resources & social rewards The Caste System in India Caste Occupations Brahmans priests, scholars Kshatriyas rulers, nobles, soldiers Vaisyas merchants, bankers, businesspeople Sudras laborers, artisans Harijans outcastes, limited to the most undesirable tasks Theory Cause of Stratification Criticisms of Theory Functionalist stratification is needed to help ---society does not society function smoothly by provide equal access to ensuring that specific roles are education & jobs performed. higher rewards ---rewards do not guarantee that important always reflect the social roles that require more skill values of roles are filled Conflict: it fails to recognize that ---Marxists ---the bourgeoisie exploit & unequal rewards are control the proletariat to based in part on maintain wealth & power differences in talents, ---American ---groups compete for scarce skills & desires among Theorists resources. those w/ power use people it to maintain their position

29. AMERICAN CLASS SYSTEM Upper Class 1%; prestigious schools; heirs, investors, large business owners & top executives Upper Middle Class Lower Middle Class Working Class 14%; college or university business executives 30%; high school or college; lower-level 30%; high school; & professionals managers, skilled craftworkers, supervisors factory & clerical workers, lower level salespeople, some craftworkers Working Poor Underclass 22%; some high school; 3%; some high school; laborers, service workers: gardeners, undesirable low-paying jobs, house cleaners, etc. unemployed, or on welfare for some time poverty: the standard of living that is below the minimum level considered adequate by society Characteristics of Poor Americans Sex: Age: ---women are the largest segment (57 %) ---children are the largest group (37%) ---female-headed households account for about ½ of all poor families ---3X more African-American & Hispanic children are poor than white children Race & Ethnicity: ---African-Americans & Hispanics are far more likely than white Americans to be poor Poverty Level by Family Size, 2000 1 person (<65 years) $8,794 2 persons (<65 years) $11,590 3 persons $13,738 4 persons $17,603 5 persons $20,819 6 persons $23,528 7 persons $26,754 8 persons $29,701

30. CHAPTER 10 RACIAL & ETHNIC RELATIONS

31. race:category of people who share inherited physical characteristics & whom others see as being a distinct group ethnicity:the set of cultural characteristics that distinguishes 1 group from another group minority group:group of people who b/c of their physical characteristics or cultural practices are singled out & unequally treated (Louis Wirth) Prejudice Discrimination →unsupported generalization →denial of equal treatment about a category of people based on group membership →can be individual or societal →involves attitudes →involves behaviors →sociological, psychological →can be in favor of a group Merton’s Patterns of Prejudice & Discrimination Prejudice ____________ Yes No Timid Bigot All-Weather Liberal No prejudiced person who nonprejudiced person does not discriminate who does not discriminate Discrimination ____________________________________________________________________ Yes Active Bigot Fair-Weather Liberal prejudiced person who nonprejudiced person discriminates who discriminates

32. A Continuum of Intergroup Relations Acceptance Rejection Cultural→Assimilation→Legal→Segregation→Subjagation→Population→Extermination Pluralism Protection Transfer Minority Groups Conditions/Concerns African-Americans making gains towards equality, but statistics still show members are lagging in education, employment & income; becoming more politically active Hispanics/Latinos rapidly growing population; trailing in income & education; diverse population Asian-Americans contrast b/w 1st-generation immigrants, who are often poor, & 2nd generation, many of whom succeed educationally & financially; viewed as a “model minority,” although this term is resented Native Americans often live on reservations; high poverty & poor education; encouraged to assimilated; taking steps to establish sources of income & better schools White Ethnics includes some who assimilate quickly & others who remain victims of prejudice & discrimination; making gains in religious tolerance; good education level

33. CHAPTER 11 GENDER, AGE & HEALTH

34. gender: the behavioral & psychological traits considered appropriate for men & women (sex = the biological identity of that person) gender roles: the specific behaviors & attitudes that society establishes for men & women The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy of Sexism • people who see women as incapable of holding positions of power make choices based on this belief • men who see women as inferior oppose women entering powerful positions • women who accept an inferior role do not pursue traditionally male roles • thus, not enough women are in positions of power to push for greater success • the fact that few women hold positions of power is used to justify the opinion that women must be incapable of holding such positions 

35. ageism: the belief that one age category is by nature superior to another age category “the graying of America”: 2000: 12%, 2010: 12%, 2025: 19%, 2050: 20% Effects of an Aging Population on American Society • Economic Effects → rising cost of health care; cost of Social Security; burden to family & younger workers; living longer in retirement • Political Effects → becoming a stronger political force; organized voting bloc (AARP, etc.) focusing on health care, retirement & Social Security Medicare: the government-sponsored health-insurance plan for elderly Americans & Americans with disabilities Medicaid: the state & federally funded health-insurance program for low-income individuals Segment of Society Special Health-Care Concerns poor people often not insured; have difficulty accessing & paying for care; cannot afford prescription drugs; have few doctors in poor communities elderly individuals need more care than general population; often poor or on strict budgets; sometimes refused insurance coverage due to pre-existing conditions AIDS sufferers need constant care in advanced stages; sometimes refused care by caregivers because of fear of infection; often not covered by insurance people suffering from often refused insurance coverage due to pre-existing conditions; chronic illnesses life-long care of illness is often extremely expensive alternative medicine: treating illness with unconventional methods such as acupuncture, acupressure, biofeedback, massage, meditation, yoga, herbal remedies & relaxation techniques

36. CHAPTER 12 THE FAMILY

37. family: a group of people who are related by marriage, blood or adoption & who often live together & share economic resources nuclear family: consists of one or both parents & their children • family of orientation • family of procreation extended family: consists of 2 or more generations kinship: a network of people who are related by marriage, birth or adoption Marriage-Partner Patterns Descent Patterns Residential Patterns Authority Patterns 1. monogamy 1. patrilineal descent 1. patrilocality 1. patriarchy 2. polygamy 2. matrilineal descent 2. matrilocality 2. matriarchy a. polygyny 3. bilateral descent 3. bilocality 3. egalitarian b. polyandry 4. neolocality Functions of the Family: • regulation of sexual activity • reproduction • socialization • economic & emotional security homogamy: marriage between individuals who have similar social characteristics heterogamy: marriage between individuals who have different social characteristics Trends in American Family Life: • delayed marriage • childlessness • dual-earner marriages • delayed childbearing • remarriage • one-parent families

38. CHAPTER 13 THE ECONOMY & POLITICS

39. economic institution: to satisfy people’s needs & wants, every society develops a system of roles & norms that governs the production, distribution & consumption of goods & services factors of production: 1) land 2) labor 3) capital 4) entrepreneurship Economic Models Capitalism Socialism 1. factors of production owned 1. industrial & 1. factors of production owned by individuals postindustrial by the government 2. forces of profit & competition 2. “pure” forms are 2. economic activity regulated regulate economic activity ideal types by the government 3. minimum government interference 3. pure form is communism power: the ability to control the behavior of others with or without their consent →the primary political authority in society = the state political institution: the system of roles & norms that governs the distribution & exercise of power in society legitimacy: whether those in power are viewed as having the right to control/govern others yes? Authority 1) traditional authority 2) rational-legal authority 3) charismatic authority no? Coercion

40. Types of Governments Democratic systems 1) democracy 2) monarchy 3) constitutional monarchy 4) democratic socialism Authoritarian systems 1) authoritarianism 2) absolute monarchy 3) dictatorship 4) junta 5) totalitarianism Major Characteristics of the U.S. Political System • dominated by 2 major political parties: Democrats & Republicans • consists of 3 branches of government: the executive, legislative & judicial • includes interest groups & PACs, which help groups with minority views influence government decisions • includes public participation, although voter participation varies & is relatively low overall • has proportional representation, but debate exists over who holds power

41. CHAPTER 14 EDUCATION & RELIGION

42. education: the roles & norms that ensure the transmission of knowledge, values & patterns of behavior from one generation to the next schooling: formal education, which involves instruction by specifically trained teachers who follow officially recognized policies • The Functionalist Perspective on Education ---Teaching Knowledge & Skills ---Transmission of Culture ---Social Integration ---Occupational Placement • The Conflict Perspective on Education ---Social Control ---Tracking ---Education & Socioeconomic Status • The Interactionist Perspective on Education Current Issues in American Education • educational reform → to address a decline in the level of the quality of education; has led to some improvements • educational alternatives → provides school choice through vouchers, charter schools & options such as homeschooling • violence in the schools → has led to the use of security measures, zero tolerance policies & conflict-resolution programs • bilingual education → controversial, particularly in states with many Hispanics; has led to “English Only” movement 

43. sacred:anything that is considered to be part of the supernatural world & that inspires awe, respect & reverence profane:anything considered to be part of the ordinary world & thus, commonplace & familiar religion:a system of roles & norms that is organized around the sacred realm & that binds people together in social groups ANIMISM: spirits active in influencing human life but not worshiped. Rituals thank or win spirits’ good will. Shamanism: spirits communicate with one person (shaman). Shamans can heal sick, predict future. Totemism:kinship between humans & animals/natural objects: totems THEISM:belief in god or gods. God is divine power worthy of worship. Monotheism: belief in one god Examples: Judaism, Islam, Christianity ---organized structure, priesthood, rituals Polytheism: multiple gods Example: Hinduism ---usually one powerful god & lesser gods ETHICALISM: based on set of moral principles with sacred quality Examples: Buddhism, Shintoism, Confucianism ---involve meditation & purity of thought & action

44. CHAPTER 15 SCIENCE & THE MASS MEDIA

45. science: the pursuit of knowledge through systematic methods sociology of science: the sociological investigation of how scientific knowledge develops scientific method: an objective & systematic way of collecting information & arriving @ conclusions Norms of Scientific Research Realities of Scientific Research • universalism Although many scientists {} fraud • organized skepticism try to or would like to {} competition • communalism Merton’s norms, reality {} Matthew effect • disinterestedness often falls short of this {} conflicting views of reality • counter-norms ideal. mass media: instruments of communication that reach large audiences w/ no personal contact b/w those sending the information & those receiving it information society: a community in which the exchange of information is the main social & economic activity Print Media; Audio Media; Visual Media; Online Media; Convergence Contemporary Mass-Media Issues • children watching too much television • violence on television • ratings systems & parental controls • advertising targeting children • disengagement from direct social contact • decline in social capital • Internet causing decline in face-to-face relationships • the power of the media; agenda-setting • TV-Y: children of all ages • TV-Y7: children, ages 7 & older • TV-G: all ages • TV-PG: parental guidance suggested • TV-14: ages 14 & older • TV-MA: adults only

46. CHAPTER 16 POPULATION & URBANIZATION

47. population: the # of people living in an area @ a particular time demography: the area of sociology devoted to the study of human populations Birthrate = live births X 1000 total population Death rate = deaths X 1000 total population Infant = deaths among infants X 1000 mortality rate total live births RATES OF POPULATION CHANGE Region Total Population Live Births Deaths Birthrate Death Rate Growth Rate (%) North 443,592 10,983 5,940 25 13 1.2 South 373,022 5,842 2,957 16 8 0.8 East 672,184 13,401 8,022 20 12 0.8 West 801,835 27,477 10,026 34 13 2.1 Malthusian Theory {vs.} Demographic Transition Theory →the population would soon reach →population patterns are tied to society’s astronomical numbers level of technological development Stage 1 = HIGH birthrate + HIGH death rate = SLOW population growth Stage 2 = HIGH birthrate + LOW death rate = RAPID population growth Stage 3 = LOW birthrate + LOW death rate = SLOW population growth

48. urbanization: the concentration of the population in cities city: a permanent concentration of a relatively large number of people who are engaged mainly in non-farming activities over-urbanization: a situation in which more people live in a city than can be supported in terms of jobs & facilities MODELS THEORIES 1) Concentric Zone 1) Anomie → city spreads outward from center, resulting → city is anonymous & unfriendly in a series of circles, or zones carries negative consequences for residents 2) Sector 2) Compositional → city grows in wedge-shaped sectors → greater diversity of city outward from center to edges of city residents leads to greater variety of lifestyles 3) Multiple-Nuclei 3) Subcultural → city develops around several centers of →people can find activity, or “nuclei,” devoted to specialized land use others with similar interests in diverse cities; some people form close ties

49. CHAPTER 17 COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR & SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

50. collective behavior: the relatively spontaneous social behavior that occurs when people try to develop common solutions to unclear situations collectivity: gathering of people who have limited interaction, unclear norms& limited unity Types of Collective Behavior: 1. crowds (casual, conventional, expressive, acting) 2. mass hysteria 3. fashions 4. fads 5. rumors 6. urban legends 7. public opinion (propaganda)8. panics (moral panics) 9. riots 10. mobs • GustaveLeBon (contagion theory): the hypnotic power of a crowd encourages people to give up their individuality to the stronger pull of the group • Ralph Turner & Lewis Killian (emergent-norm theory): the people in a crowd are often faced with a situation in which traditional norms of behavior do not apply • NielSmelser (value-added theory): predicting the direction of collective behavior, by steps