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Aquatic Microbiology. H.A.Foster revised November 2013. Water. 71% of the Earth’s surface is covered with water. 97% of this is marine and much of the freshwater is frozen. ¾ of the oceanic water is at a depth of >1000m. Physiological conditions.
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Aquatic Microbiology H.A.Foster revised November 2013
Water • 71% of the Earth’s surface is covered with water. • 97% of this is marine and much of the freshwater is frozen. • ¾ of the oceanic water is at a depth of >1000m
Physiological conditions • Temperature below 300m relatively constant at approximately 3ºC. (remember ocean currents e.g Gulf stream) • Pressure increases with depth (1 atm per 10m) • Deepest parts are 11,000m (1100atm). • Organism can be barotolerant or barophilic.
Freshwater habitats LENTIC LOTIC Rivers and streams (Lakes, ponds, reservoirs)
Microbiological habitats • Planktonic - the water column, floating free in the water. • Neustonic – the surface film. • Benthic – in and on permanently submerged sediments. • Epibiotic – On living surfaces. • Sestonic – On floating organic matter e.g.faeces.
TemperatureTemperature is an important variable in aquatic ecosystems: - changes the reaction rates (kinetics) of chemical and biochemical reactions - influences species distributions- controls dissolved O2 and CO2- changes density of water Greatest density of water occurs at 4°C below this temperature, water adopts a crystalline structure on its way to form ice. Ice has a much more open structure.
The changes in density with temperature cause stratification in lakes and physical turnovers. Stratified lakes separate into 3 zones known as the: EPILIMNION HYPOLIMNION THERMOCLINE (METALIMNION, or CHEMOCLINE)
Lake Stratification in Summer and Winter Leonard W. Casson, Ph.D., P.E., DEE
Holomictic lakes • Show two cycles of mixing in spring and autumn (fall). • In winter a thermocline develops with water at <4°C on top of water at 4°C. • In spring, the surface layer warms and the thermocline disappears. This leads to mixing of the upper and lower layers and can lead to eutrophication and an algal bloom.
Holomictic lakes • The upper layers then warm and during the summer the thermocline is re-established with warm surface water on top of colder waters. • During autumn, the combination of cooling surface waters and mixing due to autumnal gales removes the thermocline and mixing and algal blooms can occur again. • The thermocline leads to spatial distribution of organisms.
Lake types a) Holomictic (dimictic), two periods of circulation as described. b) Amictic - sealed permanently by ice. c) Cold monomictic - lake temp < 4°C (one period of circulation in summer). d) Warm monomictic - lake temp > 4°C - circulates in winter; stratifies in summer;sub tropical regions, e.g. Florida.
Lake types e) Oligomictic - rare circulation (tropics). f) Polymictic - frequent circulation. g) Meromictic - does not undergo complete circulation due to stratification by something other than temperature, e.g. salinity; can be caused by humans connecting sea and freshwater systems.
Lakes and Rivers • Water Pollution has different effects on lakes and rivers. • Pollution of lakes and rivers can cause eutrophication. • Because lake water is not quickly replaced the effects can accumulate gradually, in rivers pollution is eventually washed away to the sea. • Waste, especially wastewater, from human or animal origin can contain pathogens.
Eutrophication Eutrophication is a natural process that occurs to all lakes over time as the weathering of rocks and soils from the surrounding catchment area leads to an accumulation of nutrients in the water and associated sediments. Young lakes (and man made reservoirs) usually have low levels of nutrients and correspondingly low levels of biological activity. Such lakes are referred to a being oligotropic from the Greek work oligos meaning littleor few. Literally oligotrophic means little-nourished. Old lakes usually have high levels of nutrients and correspondingly high levels of biological activity. Such lakes are referred to as being eutrophicfrom the Greek word eumeaning well. Literally eutrophic means well-nourished.
The main causes of eutrophication are: natural run-off of nutrients from the soil and the weathering of rocks. run-off of inorganic fertiliser (containing nitrates and phosphates). run-off of manure from farms (containing nitrates, phosphates and ammonia). run-off from erosion (following mining, construction work or poor land use). discharge of detergents (containing phosphates). discharge of partially treated or untreated sewage (containing nitrates and phosphates). In most freshwater lakes the limiting nutrient is phosphorus, so an input of phosphorus in the form of phosphate ions (PO43-) results in an increase in biological activity.
Development of eutrophy in lakes The natural time scale for the aging of a lake from being oligotrophic to eutrophic is of the order of thousands of years. However, a high rate of input of nutrients (from human activities) can increase the rate of aging significantly resulting in eutrophic conditions developing after only a few decades. This artificial eutrophication has already happened in many parts of the world including the Norfolk Broads and parts of Holland, Denmark and Norway. To renew all the water in a lake may take up to a hundred years compared to a few days for the renewal of the water in a river. Consequently, lakes are particularly susceptible to pollution such as artificial eutrophication.
Oligotrophic Lake Artificial input of nutrients
Effects of Eutrophication • An increase in plant and animal biomass • An increase in growth of rooted plants, e.g. reeds • An Increase in turbidity (cloudiness) of water • An increase in rate of sedimentation • The development of anoxic (anaerobic) conditions (low oxygen levels) • A decrease in species diversity • A change in dominant biota (e.g. carp replace trout and blue-green algae replace normal algae) and anincrease in the frequency of algal blooms.
Eutrophic lake with high concentrations of plant nutrients, especially PO4 Rapid growth of algae/cyanobacteria
Heavy algal growth, increased turbidity and increased sedimentation Increased growth of plants e.g. reeds
Consequences of Eutrophication Some of the main consequences of eutrophication are: • increased vegetation may impede water flow and the movement of boats • the water may become unsuitable for drinking even after treatment • decrease in the amenity value of the water (e.g. it may become unsuitable for water sports such as sailing) • disappearance of commercially important species (such as trout)
Algal blooms followed by lysis Development of anaerobic conditions
Sources of Phosphorus in Lakes • Weathering of Rocks • Wastewaters • Industrial • Municipal • Seepage from Septic Tanks • Agricultural Runoff (Fertilizers) Leonard W. Casson, Ph.D., P.E., DEE
Reducing Eutrophication • Treating effluent before it reaches the lake. • reducing the use of phosphates as builders in detergents. • reducing the use of nitrate containing fertilisers. • using tertiary sewage treatment methods to remove phosphate and nitrate before discharge of the effluent into rivers and lakes. • directing treated waste water away from lakes to rivers and the sea. • aerating lakes and reservoirs to prevent oxygen depletion particularly during algal blooms. • removing phosphate-rich plant material from affected lakes. • removing phosphate-rich sediments by dredging..
Effects of Oxygen • Concentration of oxygen affects microbial growth. • Redox potential decreases from +600mv (aerated) to –350mv (anaerobic). • Redox potential depends on pH (above results at neutral pH. • Effects more severe at acid pH e.g acid mine drainage.
Effects of reduction of [O2] • +600mv Normal redox potential for well aerated water. Large number of aerobic species e.g. Pseudomonas. Alkaligenes, Achromobacter, appendaged bacteria, Aquatic phycomycetes, diatoms (Pinnularia, Navicula), algae e.g. Ankistrodesmus (Chlorophycae). • +600 to +200mv Facultatively anaerobic Gram-negative rods predominate. NO3-, Mn, Fe reduced. Pseudomonas, diatoms (Nitzschia, Synedra), filamentous chlorophycae e.g. Stigeoclonium, cyanobacteria e.g.Calothrix.
Effects of reduction of [O2] • +200mv to 0mv Dominance of cyanobacteria, microaerophiles and flagellates. • Pseudomonas, Oscillatoria, Phormidium, Spirillum, Chlamydomonas, Euglena. • “Sewage fungus” complex(see later). • Nitrification begins to be inhibited.
Effects of reduction of [O2] • 0mv to –150mv Nitrification inhibited, build-up of H2 and fermentation products (acids, alcohols), SO42- reduced to H2S, Blooms of green and purple sulphur bacteria, population switches to anaerobes. • Desulphovibrio, Clostridium, Chromatium, • Beggiatoa (microaerophilic sulphur oxidisers ) in upper layers.
Effects of reduction of [O2] • -150mv to –350mv terminal stage with CH4, H2, H2S production. • Devoid of eukaryotes except anaerobic protozoa, Tubifex etc. • Anaerobes only. • Very few species.
Consequences of anaerobiosis • When plants and algae die their remains gradually sink and are consumed by aerobicbacteria. Microbial predators such as Lysobacter spp. can bloom and kill the algae rapidly. This results in a reduction of the level of dissolved oxygen. Eventually, often near the bottom of a lake, virtually no oxygen remains and the water is said to be anoxic. Under these conditionsanaerobicbacteria flourish. Anaerobic bacteria often produce foul-smelling compounds such as: • hydrogen sulphide (H2S)thioalcohols (RSH) and methyl mercaptan (CH3SH) • ammonia (NH3) and polyamines such as cadaverine. resulting in the water becoming extremely unpleasant.
“Sewage fungus” • Bacteria: • Sphaerotilus natans, zoogleal bacteria, Beggiatoa, Flavobacterium. • Filamentous fungi: • Geotrichium, Leptomitus lacteus (Apodya lactea), Fusarium. • Algae: • Stigoclonium tenue, Navicula sp., Fragilaria, Synedra,Cladophora.
“Sewage fungus” • Protozoa: • Colpidium • Childonella • Cinetochilum • Trachellophylum • Paramecium • Uronema • Hemiophrys • Glaucoma • Carchesium
