Other non-Han kingdoms such as the Qiang/Di

1. Other non-Han kingdoms such as the Qiang/Di • Barfield, Thomas, The Perilous Frontier,” Ch. 3, “The collapse of Central Order,” pp. 101-10; • OR • Kleeman, Terry F., Great Perfection, pp 87-107; OR pp 117-210

2. The Qiang: Ba and Di and their Kingdoms • Introduction: The Sixteen Kingdoms • The Qiang • The Ba • The Cheng-Han Kingdom • The Di • The Former Qin Kingdom • The Later Qin Kingdom • The Later Liang Kingdom • References: • Biographies of Di Women • Empress Ren • Empress Dowager Qiang* • Empress Liang* • Empress Dowager Gou • Empresses She, Zhang and Qi • Empress Ren

3. Introduction: The Sixteen Kingdoms

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5. The Qiang 羌 • The ancient Qiang lived in the area in northeastern Qinghai 青海 and the neighboring border area of eastern Gansu 甘肃 . • Qinghai is located on the northeastern part of the Tibetan Plateau, the world's highest region. • Gansu lies between Qinghai and Inner Mongolia and borders Mongolia to the north. The Yellow River passes the southern part of the province. • The area left very few, if any, archaeological remains.

6. The Qiang (2) • The Qiang peoples were referred to very early in Chinese history. • In ancient China, the term Qiang 羌 was used as a generic reference for the non-Han peoples living in the northwest (the Han are the majority Chinese people). • These peoples were frequently at war with the ancestors of ethnic Hans. • The graph 羌 is made up of two elements: 人 (man) and 羊 (sheep), suggesting a sheep-herding people. • They were also referred to as: • The Qiang of Many Horses. • The war captives, and as • Victims used for human sacrifice. • Picture: present day Qiang.

7. The Qiang (3) • The name Qiang first appeared on the oracle bone inscriptions as the western enemies of the Shang 商 Dynasty (ca. 1400-1100BCE) and according to the (Book of Poetry) Shijing 诗经, the founder of the Shang 商 conquered the Qiang. • Around 1100 BCE, the Zhou people and their western allies conquered the Shang and formed the Zhou dynasty. • In 771 BCE, the Qiang, with the help of other ethnic groups, killed the last emperor of the Zhou 周 dynasty, and chased away his heir and family. • During the Warrior Kingdom Period 战国时代, the Qiang were referred to in the works of philosophers but not in the work of historians. • Their expansion into China was stopped by the State of Qin – Qin Shihuangdi.

8. The Qiang (4) • During the Qin 秦and Han 汉 (221BC-AD220) many groups of non-Han origin were referred to as the Qiang. • Groups such as the Ba and the Di were considered part of the Qiang peoples. • The Tanguts 黨項, who ruled part of China (Xi Xia 西夏) during the 1100s were also of Qiang origin. • The Qiang are now one of the 55 officially recognized ethnic minorities in China with a population of about 85,000. • Their descendants can be found among the Chinese, the Tibetans and many other minorities in southwestern China.

9. The Qiang: Ba • The Ba 巴 was probably made up of a number of subgroups and may have been related to the Qiang and Di氐. • The eastern part of Sichuan was called the Ba and the word was also used to refer to the ethnic peoplesliving there. • The Ba occupied the Yangzi River area west of the gorges 峡 from at least 8th century BCE. • The earliest mention of the Ba was in the Zhuozhuan左传, during the late Zhou.

10. The Qiang: Ba (2) • Ba men were prized as mercenaries; they had been used by the state of Chu 楚 during the Spring and Autumn Period. • Some had developed at least two kinds of writings but other sub-groups were still primitive and lived on a hunting gathering economy supplemented by trading. • The Ba were united by religious beliefs focused on tiger worship, by a common spoken language, and by cultural features such as songs and dances. • After the Qin dynasty’s conquest of Ba, the leaders were treated as leaders of the non-Chinese peoples and were provided with wives . • The Qin used the Ba in its wars against other states but despised them and treated them as barbarians.

11. The Qiang: Ba (3) • After contact with the Chinese, the Ba, especially those living in the cities, began to identify with Chinese culture and eventually lost Ba identity. • Liu Bang 刘邦, founder of the Han dynasty used them in putting down rebellions. • During the Later Han, Ba men were used against Qiang invasions. • During the Three Kingdoms Period 三国时代 (after the Han Dynasty) Zhuge Liang 诸葛亮 of the State of Shu-Han 蜀汉 also trained 3,000 Ba to shoot crossbow and stationed them at strategic crossroads. • By the 5th or 6th centuries, a large number of the Ba were familiar with Chinese culture while still identifying with their Ba identity and some of the Ba religious features. • Daoism was adopted by the Ba and hastened their sinicization.

12. The Qiang: Di • The Di 氐, a Qiang subgroup, settled in the Chang’an area around 3-5 century BCE. • The Di fought on foot against the Chinese so were probably not from the steppe as they were not horse riders. • They were frequently mentioned in the early part of the Spring and Autumn Period (Zhou dynasty) when a state in Hebei 河北 had a ruling house of Di origin that was annexed by the State of Zhao 赵 in 295 BCE.

13. The Qiang: Di (2) • Early in the first century, a number of wars affected the area the Ba lived in and so a number of Di and Qiang were moved into Guanzhong 關中 and Hedong 河東 in Shanxi 山西 (36). • Fights between Qiang and Di peoples began in 107 and lasted for 10 years and destroyed Guanzhong. • At the beginning of the 2nd century, the area occupied by the Di and Qiang peoples had beenaffected by a decade of rebellions against the Late Han; in 119, there was a second round of rebellions that lasted into the later part of the century. • The Di had served the Chinese as mercenaries and by the 4th century were becoming sinicized; that is, they had Chinese names, spoke, read, and wrote Chinese, adopted Chinese governmental institutions and served in official positions. • However, they were still considered by the local elite as non-Chinese.

14. The Qiang: Kingdoms Under the Qiang (Ba & Di) • There were four kingdoms under the Qiang peoples during this period: • The Cheng-Han (43 years) • The Former Qin (44 years) • The Later Qin (33 years) • The Later Liang (17 years)

15. The Qiang: Kingdoms Under the Qiang (2) 15 2014/9/10

16. The Cheng-Han Kingdom • The earliest independent state during the Sixteen Kingdoms Period was Cheng-Han 成汉 which represented two states: • The Cheng state 成, proclaimed in 304 by Li Xiong 李雄(r.303-334). • The Han state 汉 in 338 by Li Shou 李壽 (r.338-343). • When the Sima 司马family united north China under the Jin 晋dynasty (280) they executed Qiang chiefs for failing to defend the Jin against the Xiongnu attacks – and the Qiang rebelled. • They had moved to the far northwest of China but when warfare came, they led their families back east to the Chengdu Plain in Sichuan. • The elites of Sichuan did not want them and so the Central government ordered the refugees to return to the Northwest but they did not go.

17. The Cheng-Han Kingdom (2) • In 301, the Government again ordered the Li family and their followers to return to the Northwest and their leader, Li Te 李特, (d.303)from a branch of the Ba (Bandun 板楯), decided to declare independence but did not claim any imperial title. • The Jin 晋 government sent troops to put down Li’s rebellion but was unsuccessful and Li Te ’s son, Li Xiong 李雄 (274-334), declared himself King of Chengdu in Sichuan. • Later, he took the imperial title of emperor and established the earliest of the Sixteen Kingdoms and called it Da Cheng 大成. • He named his mother Empress Dowager and posthumously named his father, Li Te, emperor.

18. The Cheng-Han Kingdom (3) • Li Xiong was succeeded by his nephew and an uncle, Li Xiong’s cousin, 李壽 (300-343), was named regent. • Because of the power struggles the regent feared that he would be assassinated, deposed the emperor, changed the name of the state to Han and proclaimed himself emperor. • Cheng-Han was conquered by the Eastern Jin 晋 in 347. • By the end of the dynasty little was left of the extended Li family – many had died in warfare – having led charges in battle. • Others were the victims of power struggles after the death of Li Xiong.

19. The Former Qin Kingdom • Former Qin 前秦 was established by Fu Jiàn 苻健 (1) (r.351-355),of Di ancestry. • Fu Jiān (苻堅) (2)(r.357-385), nephew of Fu Jian (1), unified North China in 376. • Fu Jian (1) and Fu Jian (2) were brothers. • The father of the founder, Pu Hong 蒲洪 (285-350), had become tribal leader at the age of 12 but did not participate in the Xiongnu conquest of north China under Liu Yuan (who founded the first Xiongnu kingdom in China. • In 310, Pu Hong was offered a generalship by Liu Cong who had captured Luoyang in 311. • Pu Hong did not accept it but instead chose to affiliate himself with the Eastern Jin and became the Governor of Qin Province. • He pledged allegiance to Liu Yao of Han-Zhao (304-329) and was recognized as King of the Di.

20. The Former Qin Kingdom (2) • Pu Hong kept away from the struggles between the Liu and Shi clans for control of North China. • After Shi Le was victorious, Pu Hong surrendered to the Later Zhao (319-351) but when rebellions arose when Shi Hu 石虎 was usurping the throne, Pu Hong changed his allegiance to the Eastern Jin. • When Shi Hu was victorious, Hong acknowledged his allegiance to the Later Zhao. • Shi Hu appeared to be appreciative of Pu Hong’s service but was very suspicious of him and so secretly killed Pu Hong’s two oldest sons who were hostages. • When Ran Min, an adopted son of Shi Le usurped the throne, Pu Hong joined other tribal leaders against Ran Min.

21. The Former Qin Kingdom (3) • In 349, there were three unsuccessful attempts to assassinate Ran Min who became angry and ordered the massacre of non-Chinese up to 100 li (li = 1/2 kilometer)around Ye; about 200,000 were killed. • Seeing the weakening of the Later Zhao the Eastern Jin court wanted to win Pu Hong over to their side and so gave both him and his son appointments. • Pu Hong accepted the titles but soon declared himself the Prince of Sanqin 三秦 (i.e., the prince of the Three Qins – present day Shaanxi Province). • He changed his name from Pu to Fu in 350 in response to a prophesy. • After his death, his son, changed his name from Pu to Fu Fu Jiàn (1)苻健, took over his troops and again claimed the Jin titles.

22. The Former Qin Kingdom (4) • In 350, Fu Jiàn 苻健(1)and his younger brother led a group of 5,000 horse and foot soldiers, crossed the River on a pontoon bridge, and captured Chang’an in the name of Eastern Jin. • A year late, hedeclared himself the “Heavenly Prince” 天王, formally broke from Jin (and Later Zhao), and established the Former Qin 前秦 (351-394). • The dynastic name of Qin was picked to recall the glory of the Qin dynasty and both Qin states had their capitals in Chang’an. • As the ruler of Former Qin, Fu Jiàn (1) appeared to be a diligent and thrifty ruler, and abolished many of the harsh Later Zhao laws and invited able people to join his administration. • In 352, Fu Jiàn 苻健(1) claimed the title of emperor but continued to fight against former Later Zhao generals who controlled small fiefdoms.

23. Former Qin Kingdom (5) • Hewas succeeded by Fu Sheng 苻生 (r.355-357), the third son of his empress (the eldest son had been killed during a battle against the Eastern Jin). • Fu Sheng was born blind in one eye and was known for his bad temper as well as for his strength and ferocity in battle. • Soon after he succeeded to the throne all but one of his father’s advisors were killed. • In 357, Fu Sheng became suspicious of his cousins, Fu Jiān (2) 苻堅 (r.357-385) and Fu Fa 苻法, and considered killing them. • His palace women leaked the news to Fu Jiān (2), who immediately led his private army to attack the palace. • The imperial guards, resented Fu Sheng and so surrendered without resisting.

24. The Former Qin Kingdom (6) • Fu Jiān (2) 苻堅 captured Fu Sheng, who was in a drunken stupor, and had him deposed and executed. Fu Jiān then took the throne. • As emperor, he posthumously honored his father and gave his mother, Lady Gou 苟, the title Illustrious Grand Empress and his wife, the Lady Gou, Illustrious Empress and named their son, Fu Hong 宏, his heir. • His mother had his brother, Fu Fa (not same mother), killed so that he would not be able to plot against him and Fu Jiān (2) was said to have been very upset and to have enfeoofed Fu Fa’s sons.

25. The Former Qin Kingdom (7) • During this time, Murong Chui慕容垂 of the Former Yan had defected to the Former Qin and helped to conquer Former Yan in 370. • After six years of campaigns, Fu Jiān 苻堅 (2) united all of Northern China in 376 (by conquering Former Liang and Dai*). *Dai was outside of the Sixteen Kingdoms and its Xianbei rulers later changed the name of their state to Wei and went on to become the Northern Wei. • Jiān 苻堅 (2) was able to reduce his tribal leaders to a subordinate status as the Di not have a strong tribal organization. • He also executed many imperial clan members.

26. The Former Qin Kingdom (8) • As emperor, Fu Jiān (2) completely adopted Chinese culture -- employing Chinese as officials and as army commanders. • The government was in the hands of Wang Meng 王猛 (c.325-375), a Chinese prime minister, who wanted to reduce Di power and tribal influence in court. • In 383, Fu Jiān (2) tried to invade the Eastern Jin 晋 but was defeated and many of the formerly conquered states then rebelled against the him. • Seeing Former Qin weakened, Murong Chui – who had earlier defected to him – rebelled and many leading aristocrats were killed, including consort families of Fu Jiān and other imperial family members. • Fu Jiān 苻堅 (2) was captured (385) by Yao Chang 姚萇(r.384-393).

27. The Former Qin Kingdom (9) • Yao Chang was the leader of a rival Di clan whose life Fu Jiān had spared in 357. • Yao Chang tried to persuade Fu Jiān to pass the throne to him, but, angry at Yao's betrayal, Fu Jiān refused and was strangled. • After his death, the court was split into two parts: • One part was located in present day Taiyuan and was soon overwhelmed (386) by the Dingling and the Later Yan (founded by Murong Chui of the Former Yan). • In the west (Western Qin), the successors of Fu Jian struggled around the border of present day Shaanxi and Gansu and was finally destroyed after years of invasions by the Western Qin (Xianbei) and the Later Qin.

28. The Later Qin Kingdom • Yao Chang 姚萇 (r.384-393), the founder of the Later Qin (384-417) was the son of a powerful general and Qiang chieftain under Shi Hu of the Later Zhao. • After the collapse of the Later Zhao, Yao Chang's older brother tried to start an independent state but was defeated and killed by Former Qin forces. • Yao Chang surrendered and Fu Jiān 苻堅decided to let him live. • Yao then became a general of the Former Qin but after Fu Jiānwas defeated by the Eastern Jin, Yao Chang rebelled and established his own kingdom of the Later Qin 後秦 (384-417).

29. The Later Qin Kingdom (2) • After losing several battles against the successor of Fu Jiān 苻堅, Yao Chang became superstitious and thought that the spirit of Fu Jiānwas helping the fight against him. • He made an image of Fu Jiānand worshipped it but this did not help so he cut off its head and sent it to Fu Teng. • Yao Chang died in 394 and was succeeded by his son, Yao Xing 姚興 (366-416) who destroyed the last loyalists of the Former Qin and began to expand his control over western China. • Yao Xing temporarily seized all of Western Qin’s territory and forced several other states -- Southern Liang, Northern Liang, Western Liang, to submit to him. • Late in his reign, there were political struggles among Yao Chang’s sons and nephews.

30. The Later Qin Kingdom (3) • Yao Xing was succeeded by his eldest son, Yao Hong who was faced with: • Challenges from two of his brothers who had to be killed. • Fight to defeat 3,000 Qiang families who had been relocated by Yao Xing but wanted to return to their homeland. • Attempted seizure of military control by an official. • The Later Qin was attacked by the Eastern Jin. • Western Qin and DaXie also took the opportunity to attack. • By 416, Eastern Jin 晋 troops had attacked and conquered Luoyang and were advancing on the capital (Chang’an). • The non-Han rulers in the north sent forces to help the Later Qin but the Eastern Jin defeated them. • Later Qin was conquered by the Eastern Jin in 417.

31. The Later Liang • The Later Liang 後凉 (386-403) was founded by Lü Guang 呂光 of Di ethnicity. • It occupied Central Gansu. • By the time of Lü Guang’s death, the Later Liang had collapsed into three states: Northern Liang (397-439), Southern Liang (397-414) and Western Liang (400-421). • There were five Kingdoms named Liang: • The Former Liang 前涼 (320-376) – Han • The Later Liang 後凉; (386-403) – Di • The Northern Liang 北涼 (397-439) - Xiongnu • Southern Liang (397-414) Xianbei • The Western Liang 西凉 (400-421-421) – Han

32. The Later Liang (2) • Lü Guang was a general of the Former Qin who tried to connect his family to the Empress Lü, who ruled as regent between 195-180 BCE during the Han dynasty. • After the collapse of the Former Qin, Lü Guang used his troops to establish a Later Liang state (386-403). • Lü Guang was brilliant in military strategy but was not a good administrator -- placing untrustworthy persons in high positions and executing enemies. • These actions reduced public confidence in him and some began to gather around the heir of the Former Liang (of Han ancestry) who was executed a year later. • In two years, Lü Guang had to face two rebellions; famine had also begun in the province.

33. The Later Liang (3) • Looking for a scapegoat for the defeat, Lü Guang executed two of his generals of Xiongnu descent and the Xiongnu rebelled. • In 387, he led a massive assault against the Western Qin (Xianbei) but was defeated. • Border skirmishes between Later Liang and Western Qin (385-400, 409-412) continued throughout 391-396. • In 397, Lü Guang was 60 years old and only had the palace under his control. • Shortly before his death, Lü Guang took the title of “Retired Emperor” and named the son of his principal wife, Lü Shao 呂紹, emperor. • The son was told to occupy the throne and delegate all decisions his half-brothers, Lü Zuan 呂纂 (r.400-1) and Lü Hong 呂弘 as they were more competent.

34. The Later Liang (4) • Lü Zuan (was the eldest son but not the son of the principal wife) and Lü Hong started a coup and Lü Shao committed suicide. • Lü Zuan took the throne but Lü Hong later rebelled. • Lü Zuan was killed by a cousin who offered the throne to Lü Long (r.401-403), who became the last ruler of the Later Liang. • As emperor, Lü Long began a series of large scale purges -- the court struggles and warfare at the frontiers led to a critical economical situation for the people. • The elites of the asked for help from the Later Qin ruler, Yao Xing (r.394-416), who had already absorbed Western Qin and was eager to expand farther west. • Yao Xing easily took over the other states of Liang -- Western (400-421), Northern (397-439), and Southern (397-414). • In 403 the Later Qin swallowed up the remaining Liang territory.

35. Reference Biographies of Women • Di women: • Empress Ren • Empress Dowager Qiang • Empress Liang • Empress Dowager Gou • Empresses She, Zhang and Qi • Empress Ren

36. Di WomenEmpress Ren of the Cheng-Han • Empress Ren 任皇后 was the wife of Li Xiong 李雄(d.334), the founding emperor of the Cheng-Han. • She had no sons but acted as foster mother to the next two emperors -- Li Ban 李班 (288-334) and Li Qi 李期 (314-338). • Li Xiong had 10 sons by his concubines but decided to leave the throne to his nephew, Li Ban, as Li Ban’s deceased father 李蕩 (d.303) had been a co-founder of Cheng-Han state. • The sons of Li Xiong were not happy with the decision and so they assassinated Li Ban soon after he came to the throne. • Li Qi, who had also been fostered by Empress Ren was then made emperor. • During Li Qi's reign, she continued as empress dowager. • Her other foster son, Li Shou overthrew Li Qi (338) using a forged edict from her to legitimize his actions.

37. Di WomenEmpress Dowager Qiang of the Former Qin • Empress Dowager Qiang 強皇后 (d.356), the wife of Fu Jiàn, the founder of Former Qin. • Her brother, Qiang Ping (強平), was a key advisor to Fu Jiàn. • She had three sons: Fu Chang (苻萇), Fu Sheng (苻生), Fu Liu (苻柳): Fu Chang, the oldest, was named the heir but was killed in battle in 354. • She then advised her husband to name the youngest son, Fu Liu, as Fu Sheng was unbalanced. • However, Fu Jiàn, believed that Fu Sheng should succeed him as he was blind in one eye and there was a prophecy that had the phrase "three goats shall have five eyes”. • As emperor, Fu Sheng was violent and when his uncle, Qiang Ping, tried to persuade him to be less cruel, Fu Sheng fractured his uncle’s skull and executed him; a month later, his mother died in sadness and fear.

38. Di WomenEmpress Liang of the Former Qin • Empress Liang (梁皇后) (d.355) was the wife of Fu Sheng, the second emperor of the former Qin. • She was named empress after Fu Sheng succeeded to the throne. • Three months after she became empress, Fu Sheng's astrologers warned him that the stars showed that a great funeral and deaths of major officials would come within three years, and that he should reform his ways to avoid such disasters. • Fu Sheng then declared that deaths of the empress and her relatives should be sufficient to satisfy the warning from the stars. • So, he executed his wife, two of her uncles and another of her relatives.

39. Di WomenEmpress Dowager Gou of the Former Qin • Empress Dowager Gou 苟太后 was the wife of Fu Xiong 苻雄 (son of Pu Hong), and mother of Fu Jiān 苻堅 who seized power in a coup from his cousin, Fu Sheng. • After Empress Dowager Gou became a widow it is said that she carried on an affair with her cousin, Li Wei (李威), whom Fu Jiān treated like a second father. • Li Wei was a trusted advisor and it was with his support that Wang Meng 王猛 (325-375), became the prime minister. • Around the new year 358, she saw that Fu Jiān's older brother Fu Fa 苻法 (not her son) had many visitors, and she became concerned that he might be a threat to her son, and so, after consulting with Li Wei, she ordered Fu Fa to commit suicide..

40. Di Women: Empress She of the Later Qin • Empress She (蛇皇后) (d.397) was the wife of founding emperor, Yao Chang, of the Later Qin. • She was said to be the mother of Yao Xing, the second emperor of the Later Qin and was named Empress Dowager (394) when Yao Xing ascended to the throne. • However, Yao Xing also honored, posthumously, Lady Sun, a concubine of his father’s and so some suspect that Lady Sun might have been his birth mother but that he was raised by Empress She. • Empress She died in 397, her son, Yao Xing, was said to be so sad that he was unable to gather officials for imperial meetings and handle important matters of state. • Eventually when he convene court, he met with his officials wearing mourning clothes.

41. Di Women: Empresses Zhang and Qi of the Later Qin • Yao Xing had two principal wives, each following the death of the previous one: • Empress Zhang 張皇后 – little is known about her except that she was promoted from her previous rank within the palace (402). • Empress Qi 齊皇后 in (412) was also promoted from the ranks of palace women.

42. Next Reading • The Xianbei and its Kingdoms • Klein, Kenneth Douglas, The contributions of the fourth century Xianbei States to the Reunification of the Chinese Empire.