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Electrochemical Generation of Nano-structures at the Liquid-Liquid Interface. Robert A.W. Dryfe School of Chemistry, Univ. of Manchester (U.K.) robert.dryfe@manchester.ac.uk. Liquid/Liquid Interfaces in catalysis.
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Electrochemical Generation of Nano-structures at the Liquid-Liquid Interface Robert A.W. Dryfe School of Chemistry, Univ. of Manchester (U.K.) robert.dryfe@manchester.ac.uk Leiden, Nov. 2008
Liquid/Liquid Interfaces in catalysis • Widely used: bi-phasic system, allows for ease of separation of catalysis from reactant mixture. • Electrochemical investigations of phase-transfer catalysis (Schiffrin 1988 [1], Girault 1994 [2]) • Water does not have to be one of the phases = “Fluorous biphase catalysis” (Horvath 1994) [3] • Stable room-temperature ionic liquids: • (Ballantyne 2008 [4]) H3DA TPBF3 ethylmethy-limidazolium ethylsulfate (EMIM EtSO4) interface Leiden, Nov. 2008
Liquid/Liquid Interfaces:electro-catalyst generation • Reduction of solution phase Mn+: • Heterogeneous ET (surface of electronic conductor) • Homogeneous ET (nanoparticle preparation) • Heterogeneous ET (aq/organic interface) – with/without potential control Leiden, Nov. 2008
Liquid/Liquid Interfaces:electro-catalytic reactions • Questions: • Can the catalyst be used in situ - for catalysis of processes at liquid-liquid phase boundaries? • If so, could catalyst density be controlled (Langmuir trough approach) to optimise reactivity? • Or can catalyst be removed and immobilised on a (conventional) electrode? Leiden, Nov. 2008
{Liquid-liquid Electrochemistry 1:Distribution potential} • Each ion: distribution equilibrium at the organic/water interface • Define standard Galvani potential of transfer: • Vary potential with common-ion • ratio of ion concentration in each phase (maintained by hydrophilic/hydrophobic counter-ions) “poises” potential • (Nernst-Donnan equilibrium ) • - ion transfer/electron transfer – particularly for SECM @ L/L. Leiden, Nov. 2008
{Liquid-liquid Interfaces 2:Polarised Interfaces} • External polarisation of L/L interface (both phases contain electrolyte): • Electrolytes = AX(aq) and CY(org), the following inequalities are met: • also: • and Leiden, Nov. 2008
Structure of L/L interface • Essentially sharp, even down to molecular scale – nm-scale transition from phase 1 to phase 2. • Interfacial fluctuations (capillary waves): • Competition between thermal motion and interfacial tension • Appear to extend down to molecular scale) = nm scale amplitude • Experimental probes: X-ray scattering, non-linear optical spectroscopy (SFG, SHG), (Schlossman, 2000 [5]), (Richmond 2001 [6]). • => Smooth, reproducible interface. Leiden, Nov. 2008
Modify Sharp (but fluctuating) interface? • Catalysis – introduction of metal (nano-)particles • Result: electro-catalytic processes at interface with only ionic contacts. • “In order to study the electrochemical properties of nanoparticle… we need to attach them to an electrode surface” – DJ Schiffrin, this week. • (1) “Synthesise, then fix them” • (2) “in situ growth.” Leiden, Nov. 2008
Approaches 1 vs. 2 at L/L interface • Source of particles? • (i) Assembled at interface (particles = surfactants) • (ii) Grown at interface (either (a) spontaneous deposition or (b) electrodeposition). Then spontaneous assembly (adsorption) at interface Leiden, Nov. 2008
(i) Assembly of (pre-formed) particles at L/L interfaces • Method: form hydrosol (organo-sol), particles adsorb interface on introduction of organic (aqueous) phase. • Particles are surfactants, if favourable contact angle,q. • Desorption energy given by: • Particles of given type, will be displaced by those with larger radius (r): • Size segregation effect demonstrated for CdSe (Russell, 2003 [7]). Leiden, Nov. 2008
(i) Assembly of (pre-formed) particles at L/L interfaces - continued • Other terms in equation: • q can bevaried by changing surface chemistry (Vanmaekelbergh, 2003 [8]) – induce assembly of Au NPs by addition of ethanol – contact angle tends 90o. • Residual surface charge, Au NPs attracted to/from polarised L/L interface – see Figure, from (Fermin, 2004 [9]) • Lippmann equation, interfacial tension is function of applied potential Leiden, Nov. 2008
Ordering of insulating particles at L/L interfaces • System • 1.6mm SiO2 particles (Duke Sci. Corp., USA). • Hydrophobic coating - dichlorodimethylsilane. • Non-aqueous phase • Octane (e = 2.0) or Octanone (e = 10.3). • Suspend at water/org interface • (Campbell/Dryfe 2007, but after Nikolaides, 2002 [10]) Dried: close packing Leiden, Nov. 2008
Spontaneous ordering of SiO2 Use image analysis to identify individual particle positions: radial distribution function found. - metallic particles, more polar phases? Field of view: 190 microns x 143 microns: Leiden, Nov. 2008
(ii – a)In situ growth of particles at L/L interfaces: spontaneous chemical reduction • Faraday (1857 [11]): formation of colloidal Au at L/L (water/CS2) interface • “dark flocculent deposits”, metal in “a fine state of division”. • General problem of particle formation at L/L interface is prevention of aggregation: • e.g. Au deposition @ water/1,2-dichloroethane interface, fractal structures form: image statistics, growth laws for aggregation process (scale bar = 10 microns) Leiden, Nov. 2008
(a) Template diameter < “intrinsic” particle diameter (TEM: Pt deposition in zeolite Y) Electrodeposition (b) Presence of ligands in interfacial system (TEM: Au deposition in presence of phosphines) - Spontaneous deposition Control deposit aggregation Leiden, Nov. 2008
Stabilisation: surface chemistry • Ideal case: modify surfaces to prevent aggregation, but retain catalytic activity. • Brust/Schiffrin (1994, [12]) (+ Faraday?): thiol stabilisation of Au formed by two-phase reduction • Hutchison (2000 [13]), Rao (2003 [14]) (+ Faraday?) : phosphine ligands for stabilisation of Au formed at L/L interface. • Question: for Au deposition, can process (i) = assembly of particles at L/L be related to process (ii) = in situ L/L formation? Leiden, Nov. 2008
Au formation at L/L interface • Au NPs formed at interface, • TEM suggests particle size regular, density increases with time. 1.5 hrs 24 hrs Leiden, Nov. 2008
Comparison of (i) assembly vs. (ii) formation • Works – i.e. electron microscopy, xrd and xps suggest can get similar (ca 2 nm) Au NP from routes (i) and (ii) if we use the same reducing agent. i Leiden, Nov. 2008
The characterisation problem • Deposit characterisation: ex situ, and (normally) vacuum based methods • TEM, SEM, XPS – particle distribution lost. • Reactive systems: e- beam/x ray damage? • Dryfe/Campbell 2008 gives…….. Leiden, Nov. 2008
In situ deposit characterisation: gel or freeze interface • Deposit Au at gel/organic interface: thickness (600 nm) • Approach (ii), deposit Au at L/L interface (org = acrylate and photo-initiator) = photo-cure interface. • (after Benkoski 2007, approach (i) [15]) • Aim: “freeze” structure of deposit – aggregate of ca 200 nm particles.Dryfe/Ho 2008 Leiden, Nov. 2008
In situ deposit characterisation: alternative techniques (1) • Structure of “neat” L/L interface: x-ray scattering, non-linear spectroscopy. • Both recently applied to NP assembly/formation at L/L interface. • Former: e- density profile attributed to cluster (d = 18 nm) of 1.2 nm NPs. • Approach (ii) From Sanyal (2008 [16]) Leiden, Nov. 2008
In situ deposit characterisation: alternative techniques (2) • Second-harmonic generation from polarised water/octanone interface, for Au NPs assembled at interface (ie approach (i)), • Short time-scales, reversible particle assembly • Longer time-scales, irregularities in SHG response attributed to NP aggregation. From Galletto (2007 [17]). Leiden, Nov. 2008
(ii – b)In situ growth of particles at L/L interfaces: electrochemical reduction • Motivation: apply variable potential difference (4-electrode methodology): • Study electrochemical growth in absence of solid substrate: • M. Guainazzi (1975 [18]) – Cu, Ag • Schiffrin/Kontturi, (1996 [19]) (Au, Pd) • Unwin, (2003, [20]) - (Ag) • Cunnane, (1998,.[21])(polymers) • Dryfe, (2006, [22]) (review). • Advantage: Analysis of current response - information on growth. Leiden, Nov. 2008
What is known at present? • Deposit “units” nm scale, adsorb, tend to aggregate. • (TEM of Pd, scale bar = 100 nm) • Replace single interface with array of micron scale (or smaller) interfaces = template. • g-alumina as template, 200 nm diameter pores (SEM of Pd, scale bar = 100 nm) Leiden, Nov. 2008
Nucleation/Growth: Voltammetry Electrolytic cell: Where Mn+ = PdCl42−, R = n-BuFeCp2. DE0≈ 0.3 V Insufficient for spontaneous reaction: extra η≈ 0.2 V needed. N.B. Irreversible deposition Mn+(1) + nR(2) → M(s) + nO+(?) Leiden, Nov. 2008
Chronoamperometry • Interfacial Pd depn. Step potential, increasing h. • Approximate treatment, use of excess (40-fold) of electron donor (org): metal precursor (aq). • Apply “classical” models to Pd deposition @ L/L. • Behaviour intermediate (prog - blue vs. instantaneous models - pink), • t > tmax does not follow Cottrell Leiden, Nov. 2008
Analysis of chronoamperometry • Heerman/Tarallo ≈ Mirkin/Nilov models [23, 24]: Leiden, Nov. 2008
Extending model: 4th parameter • Cell: • Co-evolution of hydrogen • Palladium surface grows, acts as catalyst. • Proton reduction rate included as 4th parameter (after Palomar, 2005 [25]): improved fit, but no direct evidence for hydrogen evolution. • Deposition (almost) insensitive to applied potential: implies zero critical cluster! Leiden, Nov. 2008
Competitive reactions • pH dependence of metal deposition? • However, ferrocene oxidation is coupled to H+ transfer (H2O2 generation) • Nernst-Donnan equilibrium dictates interfacial potential, hence extent of H+ transfer. (from Su, Angew. Chem, 2008 [26]) Leiden, Nov. 2008
Potential dependence of particle size • High resolution TEM of Pd, deposition for 20 s at L/L. Df = 0.5 V (upper), down to 0.4 V (lower) – higher h: higher mean particle size. Leiden, Nov. 2008
In situ electrocatalysis at L/L • Photo-catalytic interfacial electron transfer, mediated by Pd deposited in situ. • (from Lahtinen, Electrochem Comm, 2000 [27]) • Complex system: flow based approach ? Leiden, Nov. 2008
Ex situ Electrocatalysis • Au-phosphine stabilised NPs formed at L/L interface, transferred by adsorption on to glassy carbon surface: • Response of GC to formaldehyde oxidation (before/after Au NP adsorption) is shown: • Electrocatalytic activity of materials. (Luo/Dryfe, 2008) Leiden, Nov. 2008
Conclusions • L/L interface offers a ready “contact-less” route to the: • (i) assembly of (catalytically active) particles and • (ii) to the growth of (catalytically active) particles, the latter either by spontaneous or electrochemical approaches. • Issues - Deposit geometry conditions • Applicability of “classical” deposition models • - difficulty/lack of applicability of “standard” nano-scale characterisation techniques • Nano-scale morphology not dictated by strong substrate-deposit attraction but strong substrate(1)-substrate(2) repulsion. • Regularity of particle structure (before aggregation) – uniform flux to each particles? Leiden, Nov. 2008
Suggestions for Future Work • Catalytic production of H2O2 at the L/L interface • Photo-catalytic reduction (H2, CO2??) at this interface • Does one of the phases have to be H2O? • Catalysis as fn(D, p) ? Leiden, Nov. 2008
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