Fashioning a New Nation

1. Fashioning a New Nation How the American Government was Formed and Developed

2. Articles Of Confederation Written during the Revolution to provide a national government, the Articles of Confederation provided for a Congress in which each state had but one vote on most proposed legislation. Many actions, including the powers to tax, to regulate trade, or to expand national power, required a UNANIMOUS vote. As result, many political leaders considered the government to be too weak to function properly.

3. New States The Northwest Ordinances (1785-86) provided a method for admitting new states, guaranteeing those states the same rights as the original 13 states. While Thomas Jefferson devised a plan for new states, the settlers themselves proved to have the last word in how a new region was settled (and what it was to be named). New states would have an enormous impact on how the political life of the nation changed over time.

4. Dissatisfaction in the West In 1786, a group of western Pennsylvania, led by Revolution veteran Daniel Shays (left), briefly rebelled against the government of the state, complaining that the “nabobs in Philadelphia” and the Federal government did little to help the people on the frontier. This brief revolt ignited calls for a meeting to “revise the Articles of Confederation.”

5. Inflation, Taxes and Power This Federalistpolitical cartoon fromConnecticut portraysthe state as a cartstuck in the mudand weighed downby paper moneyand debt. WhileFederalists proclaim“Comply withCongress” and pullthe state toward abright sun, the Anti-Federalists exclaim“Success to Shays”and drag the carttoward a shadowyfuture symbolized bythe dark clouds. This Federalistpolitical cartoon fromConnecticut portraysthe state as a cartstuck in the mudand weighed downby paper moneyand debt. WhileFederalists proclaim“Comply with Congress” and pullthe state toward abright sun, the Anti-Federalists exclaim“Success to Shays”and drag the carttoward a shadowyfuture symbolized bythe dark clouds.

6. The Demi-gods In 1786, 12 delegates (including James Madison) met in Annapolis Maryland to suggest amendments to the Articles of Confederation that would remove state barriers to commerce. Instead they called for new convention to meet in Philadelphia to fix “important defects in the system of the Federal Government.” Jefferson called those who went to Philadelphia “an assembly of demi-gods” – he was in France and angry he could not be there. The delegates in 1787 were actually very human and had very specific (and different) agendas.

7. Big States vs. Small States James Madison, a friend of Thomas Jefferson, resented the fact that small states (like New Hampshire) had the same power in the Federal legislature as the larger states (like Madison’s Virginia). Madison designed a model for stronger Federal government that would create a strong executive figure and a legislature that would assign votes according a state’s population.

8. Opening the Convention The Convention opened at Freedom Hall in Philadelphia in May 1787. Calling for a “properly constituted national government,” Edmund Randolph introduced Madison’s “Virginia Plan.” The convention was deadlocked for 2 months over this issue.

9. Unity imperiled Leaders of smaller (population) states, like New Jersey and Delaware, disliked Madison’s “Virginia Plan” because they feared that the large states would vote as a bloc and leave the smaller states powerless. In response to Madison, William Paterson of New Jersey (left) offered a plan which would award each state one vote in the legislative branch of government. Resolving this basic difference between the big and the small would be the first challenge in creating a new government. Paterson ultimately supported the US Constitution and after serving as a US Senator for NJ, became a Supreme Court justice.

10. Compromise The deadlock over representation was broken by a “great compromise,” dividing the new congress into two parts – a “house of representatives” where states were given representatives according to their populations; and a “senate” where two persons represented each state. This compromised opened to the way to completing a plan for the new government.

11. A Powerful Executive One reason the constitution gave broad powers to the office of president was the certainty that the first president would be George Washington. Washington’s public act in resigning his commission as head of the army in 1783 (above) reassured other leaders that Washington would use his powers wisely.

12. Other features of the Constitution • A “three-fifths” compromise dealt with slavery by making each slave 3/5 of a free person for census count (and representation). The “slave trade” (buying slaves in Africa) was to be outlawed after 20 years. • A separate court system was created to be independent of the president and congress, with judges granted life tenure on the Federal bench. • The Constitution guaranteed a “trail by jury” to all charged in “criminal cases” (those that would lead to a jail sentence). • Judges and the president could be removed by impeachment. • The Federal government would manage the “national lands” by setting up new territories and states. • No state could discriminate against citizens of other states. • The Constitution could be changed by amendments.

13. Bargaining for ratification When the draft of the Constitution was completed, a major campaign was undertaken to get the states to adopt the new form of government. Writing as “The Federalist,” Alexander Hamilton, James Madison. And John Jay (left to right), published 85 essays explaining the design of the constitution and how it would create a stable government while protecting the rights of individuals and the states.

14. The Anti-Federalists Several state leaders opposed the ratification of the constitution, arguing that it would create a government that would become too powerful and too remote from by population at large. Luther Martin (right), a brilliant but eccentric lawyer in Maryland, wrote several essays arguing that the Federal government would eventually “trample the rights of the people.” The constitution could not be put into force until 9 of the 13 states accepted it.

15. A Bill of Rights Some of the most respected men at the Constitutional Convention opposed the ratification of the Constitution unless it contained a “bill of rights” that specifically spelled out the rights of individuals. George Mason of Virginia (left) had enough influence to make ratification in Virginia uncertain. Only after Washington and Madison gave him their word that the constitution would be amended with a Bill of Rights did Mason withdraw his objections

16. Ratification When New Hampshire (the 9th state) ratified the Constitution in May 1788, an elaborate celebration was held on July 4, 1788. But not until Virginia and New York ratified the Constitution (in July) did the old Congress of the Articles of Confederation call for an election to choose a president. North Carolina and Rhode Island held off joining the new arrangement for more than a year.

17. Critical States New York ratifies the Constitution and become the “11th Pillar” of the U.S. Supporters of the Constitution regarded Massachusetts, Virginia, Pennsylvania, and New York as the critical states – if any of these rejected the new nation, it could well fail.

18. Washington Inaugurated Washington was elected president by a unanimous ballot of the Electoral Congress. He was inaugurated in New York, the temporary capital, on April 30, 1789. Despite the great trust that the nation had in Washington, he faced serious challenges, including the threat of war from Europe, a large Federal debt, and a divided cabinet.

19. Massive debt America in 1789 was $77 million in debt, nearly all of it due to the costs of the revolution (in expenses for supplies, pensions to the war’s veterans, etc.). Alexander Hamilton, the Secretary of the Treasury, proposed that the government would pay off the debt through taxes on overseas trade (called tariffs), land sales, and long-term bonds invested with “sound” banks. While his proposal was a good one, it would have the side-effect of helping wealthy Americans (who owned the revolutionary bonds of debt) get even wealthier. Hamilton had more influence with northern Congressmen than anyone else.

20. Paying for Government The Federal government had only two sources of income – the sale of lands in the west and the taxes (tariffs) on imports from overseas. As Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton persuaded Washington to support creation of a “Bank of the United States” that could handle government finances and arrange loans for the government. Jefferson, the Secretary of State, feared this bank would allow the “wealthy and powerful” to sway Federal policies.

21. Interlude in Philadelphia Until a permanent site for the national capital was selected, the Federal offices were in Philadelphia, where the Declaration of Independence had been written. Southerners, fearing the growing clamor against slavery, wanted the capital to be in a southern state.

22. Education in Citizenship This book of children’s verse uses America’s new national symbol, the bald eagle, takenfrom the Great Seal of the United States. Educational materials -- such as this book of child’s verses-- includedrepublican and patriotic themes. New novels, plays, and other forms of entertainment contained ‘lessons’ on the role of the citizen in the new Federal government – In Royall Tyler’s “The Algerine Captive” the main character of the story joins a slave-buying expedition. Though he describes the horror of slavery, he accepts its legality because it is protected by the Constitution.

23. Corruption and Real Estate Congress Embarked on the Ship Constitution-- Jefferson and Madison hoped that by relocating the capital to a new home on the Potomac, they could 1) reduce the dangers offederal government corruption; 2) give Virginia greater influence. In this cartoon the devil lures Congress to its temporary home in Philadelphia.

24. The New Capital of the Country As the leader of most southerners in Congress, Jefferson made a “gentleman’s agreement” with Hamilton. In return for a promise to build the new national capital on land along the Potomac River, Jefferson would get Congress to approve Hamilton’s plan for Federal government finances. But he stilled worried that Hamilton’s ideas would hurt “liberties” in the country.

25. Division and Political Parties As the only leader trusted by almost all the voters, Washington reluctantly agreed to be re-elected in 1796, rather than let the nation be divided between the “Federalist” followers of Hamilton and the “Republican” followers of Jefferson. Ironically, even though Jefferson and his followers called themselves “Republicans” (those who wanted a republic of limited government powers), the political party they created was later renamed the “Democratic Party.” Every year since 1826, the Democrats have held a celebration of Jefferson’s birthday to honor him as the founder of their party.

26. Party Organization During the 1790s, both the Federalists and the Republicans invested a great deal of effort and money in newspapers that would editorialize their policies and support their candidates for office. Local and State governments, and even Federal offices, helped newspapers loyal to their party by giving those newspapers contracts to print official notices, laws, etc. This “printing patronage” was to be a cornerstone of party organization for over 100 years in America.

27. Revolution Divisions over policy in Washington’s government were made worse by the French Revolution. When the French overthrew (and later executed) their king, followers of Jefferson hailed it as an advance for liberty. Hamilton’s followers feared it could create social chaos in America. Because the new France was also at war with Britain, the situation threatened to hurt American trade in Europe. Soon much of the nation was divided over all of these inter-locked issues.

28. The French Revolution This Federalistcartoon shows theFrench Revolutiondebasing Liberty,who appears intattered clothes butsports the tricolorcockade, symbol ofthe revolution, in herhair. Liberty sits infront of the bodies ofvictims decapitatedby the guillotine, abloody symbol ofwhat Federalistsregarded as theFrench Revolution’sperverse theories ofjustice.

29. Trouble with Britain and France As the war between France and Britain continued, American interests continued to be harmed. British naval vessels would stop American merchant ships, seize cargoes intended for Europe, and also seize American sailors, claiming they were “deserters from the British navy.” Newspapers loyal to Jefferson called for a war against Britain.

30. French pressures France also posed problems for America. Edmond-Charles Genet, a diplomat from France, hired American sailors to seize British ships in the Atlantic, and recruited Americans for an army to attack British territory in the Florida peninsula. President Washington, angry that these actions could lead America into a war, wanted Genet deported back to France. Ironically, when the government of France changed hands because of a coup, Genet was granted political asylum in America and remained in the country until his death in 1834.

31. Adams in the middle John Adams, the second president, found himself caught between the followers of Jefferson and those of Hamilton. His one term as president was mostly a failure, largely because he could not develop an effective way to govern with Congress divided and the United States powerless to stop either France or Britain from interfering with American trade across the ocean.

32. Near war and restrictions on the press • Alien Act: Allowed the president to deport citizens of other countries or imprison them. • Naturalization Act: Required all foreign nationals to live in the US for 14 years before being allowed American citizenship. • Sedition Act: allowed the government to arrest and convict publishers for “making false, scandalous and malicious” statements about the government and its officials. Act was to run for 3 years. In 1798, supported by followers of Hamilton in Congress, Adams pushed through laws that he thought would help the U.S. counter British and French pressures. These laws allowed the Federal government to curtail foreign influence in the U.S. and to reduce newspaper criticism of the government. Jefferson said that the Sedition Act was a “violation of the liberty of speech (First Amendment) – but as yet, no court had the power to determine the “constitutionality” of a law.

33. Jefferson the Radical Jefferson’s opponentsportrayed himas an atheist whodrew radical ideasfrom the FrenchRevolution. In thisimage the Americaneagle tries toprevent Jeffersonfrom throwing the Constitution into theflames emanatingfrom the altar ofGallic (French)despotism. Jefferson’s strength rested on those who wanted land, new states, new commercial opportunities, and protection of slavery.

34. Election of 1800 In 1800, Jefferson defeated Adams but the election had to be decided by the House of Representatives. Aaron Burr tried to win the election by intriguing for electoral votes pledged to Jefferson. Jefferson won in the House only because his old rival Alexander Hamilton persuaded some of his followers to vote for Jefferson. The 12th amendment was added to the Constitution to create specific vice-presidential candidates.

35. Jefferson rewards his followers On this sheet of paper, Thomas Jefferson listed the names of the major political leaders who helped him win election to the presidency in 1800. Next to many of the names are the Federal offices he planned to offer to each man. Jefferson is credited with creating the “spoils system,” in which a president gave Federal jobs to those loyal to him. But in fact, this system was in use in Britain and America long before the Constitution was written.

36. Enlarging Supreme Court power Jefferson refused to grant last-minute Federal court appointments made by John Adams in the last hours of his term in office. William Marbury, one of the men appointed, sued in court to get his judgeship. The issue had to settled by the Supreme Court. There, John Marshall, the chief justice, ruled that the law for creating the judgeships violated the Constitution. In this way, Marshall secured for the court the power to decide the constitutionality of Federal (and later, state) laws.

37. Death of Hamilton In July 1804, Alexander Hamilton was killed in a duel by Aaron Burr, Jefferson’s disgraced vice-president. Hamilton’s death marked the beginning of the end of the Federalist Party movement. The Republican Party of Jefferson (later renamed the Democratic Party) would dominate American politics for the next 50 years.