European Supremacy

1. European Supremacy

2. Society and Politics to World War I • Growth of European industrialism 1860-1914; • increased Europe’s production: steel mills/railways/shipyards/chemical plants/more capital goods • by 1910, car/ radio/airplane/bicycle/telephone/typewriter/light bulb invented; • Economies based on gold/independent–east/southern Europe produced agricultural/imported refined • Nation-states w/large electorates/political parties/centralized bureaucracies emerged • large scale corporations w/trade unions; • white collar workers; • urban life dominated; • socialism; • welfare/more military increased taxation

3. Population Trends and Migration • Europe grew faster than rest of world • Reached plateau, birth and death rates stabilized • Rapid growth in undeveloped nations lead to food/resource crisis • Europeans more mobile • Emancipation of peasants • Railways, steamships, better roads; • Cheap land, better wages, economic development in Europe, North, Latin America, Australia enticed people to move • Emigrated and brought European culture with them

4. Medicine 1860s • Breakthrough in preventive medicine as idea of germs showed need for cleanliness • Louis Pasteur (1822-1895). finds bacteria 1868. • Vaccination vs. Rabies 1885. • Joseph Lister (1827-1912) • began sterilizing wounds • Helped stop death from Septicemia • Decline in death rates was enormous from 1870's onwards.

5. The Second Industrial Revolution • First Industrial Revolution" • 1780-1830 in Britain. • 1850-1870 Industry comes of age in much of Europe.  • From 1870 - a 2nd Industrial Revolution.  • New range of industries grew up, • Financial institutions become more important.

6. New Industries • Chemicals • Steel • Electricity • Oil • At end of century cars invented (1885) • 1860 - GB, Fr, Belg, + Germany together produce 125,000 tons of steel,1913 - 32,020,000 tons of steel1881 - first electricity plant (UK)

7. Economic Difficulties • Bad weather and foreign competition put pressures on European agriculture • Lowered consumer prices and drag on economy • 1873: large banks failed • Standard of living improved • Strikes and labor unrest frequent • Growth of trade unions and socialist political parties • Urbanization= larger markets

8. Rise of Middle Classes • Middle classes became arbiter of consumer taste/ceased to be revolutionary

9. Social Distinctions • Social Distinctions within the Middle Classes • Middle classes grew diverse • Some exceeded aristocratic splendor/made members in House of Lords • (German Krupp family) • Only few 100 found this wealth • Petite Bourgeoisie • White-collar workers/lower middle class • significant tensions b/t middle class groups • Small shopkeepers resented capitalists

10. Late 19th Century Urban Life • Europe became more urbanized • Rural migrants faced poor housing/anonymity/ unemployment • Different ethnicities had trouble mixing (anti-Semitism)

11. New Cities • Houses were very crowded, and badly built • Built on rural model not suitable for cities. • Houses had to be crowded near factories due total absence of public transport. • After Mid 19th C. • Urban planning and public Transport - people could live away from work. • Paris was model under Napoleon III • 1890s - electric trams (streetcars) - real revolution in public transport. • Late 19th C. Urban life improved in quality - still slums, but a good experience for many. • Development of Suburbs • many city dwellers displaced/middle classes looked for spacious neighborhoods/ • working class looked for cheap housing – • suburbs created around cities; separated home and work even more

13. Dumbbell Blueprint

15. Urban Sanitation • Cholera struck all classes • Physicians believed diseases spread through infection from miasmas in air • Miasmas: presence of foul odors • 1840’s- physicians publicized dangers w/ filth • New water/ sewer systems • 1848- Public Health Act • 1851- French Melun Act • Allowed medical officers and building inspectors to enter homes • Discovery of bacterial theory of disease- Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch and Joseph Lister • Mortality rate down

16. Housing Reform and Middle Class Values • Reformers sought housing reform to solve medical, moral, and political dangers • Decent housing to healthy, moral, and politically stable population • Jules Simon- good housing to patriotic feeling • 1885- lowered interest rate for cheap housing; gov. authorities began public housing projects

17. Working Class Culture • Characterized by middle class writers as all about drinking • Sport - soccer, racing; music halls. • Working men's institutes/education • political activity - Chartism in England. • Religion more or less irrelevant to the working classes, • Many continue to be baptized. 

18. Late 19th Century Women • Women remained in economic dependence • legal inferiority in all classes

19. Women and Property • Married women couldn’t own property in their names, • No independent standing before the law • Limited freedom to work/save/move around • Reform came slowly: • 1882, Great Britain passed Married Woman’s Property Act • France reformed 1907/similar laws in Germany/elsewhere

20. Family Law: • legal codes required wives to “give obedience” to their husbands/ legal minors • Divorce needed act of Parliament • husband could take children away from mother/give them to someone else • Force daughter to marry • Abortion/ contraception illegal • Laws on rape worked to disadvantage of women

21. Educational Barriers: • Less access to education than men • No secondary education prevented gaining qualifications need to enter University • Men feared professions overcrowded if allowed women in • Schoolteaching women’s job

22. Employment for Women • Two major developments affected economic lives of women: • Availability of New Jobs • Expansion of business/retail made new jobs, elementary teachers/typewriter/telephone exchange: • low-level skills/minimal training – paid low wages b/c she could expect more $ from husband • Withdrawal from the Labor Force • Women w/jobs were young/unmarried, • less jobs that could be done from home, • Employers wanted dedicated women w/o children • Wages for men increased, no need of 2nd income/longer life/less children • Women from more prosperous families worked less

23. Working Class Women • Textile industry less dominant • Still employed many women • Production came from putting-out system • Manufacturer buys material, tailored by women in homes/sweatshops • Prominent in Germany/women economically exploited

24. Middle Class Women • Middle-class women enjoyed consumerism/ domestic comfort/servants/electricity • The Cult of Domesticity: • middle-class women didn’t work if possible, • mother/ wife – might contribute to business/weren’t that involved w/children/ • Magazines praised motherhood/domesticity/religion/charity as proper work • France, romantic marriage viewed as danger to society • mainly economic; • children were expected in 1st year; • woman in charge of household: • consumption/ child care/domestic management

25. Men and Sex • Prostitution was very common • 30,000 plus prostitute women in London in Late 19th C. • Poverty of so many meant that rich men found it easy to buy sex. • Ideal of wife and mother, often left single women with no easy means of support. • Sexist attitudes to women continue • Women blamed for venereal diseases - 1864-1886 - Contagious Diseases Act in UK.

26. Religious and Charitable Activities • Women expected to attend mass • educate children • Pray • be meek • Relationship between religion & domesticity reason for tension between religion & feminism • expected to be charitable

27. Women- Ideals • Idealization of women's place always being at home, cooking and providing for men. • Home increases in emotional importance (Home Sweet Home - 1870). • In some families it was the wife who made all domestic decisions and gave her husband "spends." • New emphasis on Children • Loving parent-child relationships. • Many rich and middle class women would now breast feed their own babies. • Less children as time went on + lower death rate - each child valued more. • The birthrate fell - in order to maximize economic position. • contraceptive devices became available • Children were controlled by parents and repressed

28. Sexuality and Family Size Urban middle classes develop a distinct sexual ideology: • Ideal of separating family from rest of life; • Made everything exciting - trouser legs, for instance, were rude to mention.  Women's were not supposed to show ankles.  • Use of  restrictive clothing -- bustles, girdles -- which emphasized the sexuality of women. Habit in the middle class of Medicalizing sexuality (rather than seeing it as sin) • Masturbation - obsession with Children's activity. • Homosexuality - from sin to sickness.

29. Political Feminism • Liberal society didn’t improve situation for women • liberals thought women supported conservatives b/c of Roman Cath. Church • Obstacles to Achieving Equality: • women reluctant to support feminism • Favored nation over feminism/tactical differences • Difficult for working-class/middle-class to cooperate • Roman Cath. feminist opposed secular feminists • feminists applied rights of man to women: • Earliest feminists has odd opinions on sexuality/family life/poverty • Feminist cause badly divided over goals/tactics

30. Votes for Women in Britain: • Millicent Fawcett led National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies: • thought Parliament would only grant • vote if they showed as respectable/responsible in politics • Emmeline Pankhurst led more radical branch of English feminists(Suffragettes) lobbied publicly for suffrage • Used violent tactics of arson/window breaking/postal sabotage/marched on Parliament; • Liberal govt. of Herbert Asquith imprisoned demonstrators with force • fed hunger strikers • refused to extend franchise; • Women got the vote in 1918, only after contribution to the war effort

31. Political Feminism on the Continent • French/German movements much less advanced; • Hubertine Auclert campaigned virtually alone • 1901, the National Council of French Women(CNFF) organized upper/middle-class women, didn’t support vote for several yrs • French feminists rejected violence, • never held rallies, • only could vote after WWII • German law forbade women from political activity • Union of German Women’s Organizations(BDFK) founded 1894, • wanted more privileges before suffrage, • got suffrage 1919 after German defeat/revolution • Before WWI, women demanded rights but tactics/success varied

32. Jewish Emancipation • Emancipation of Jews from ghetto to equal citizens was major accomplishment; • impact on Europe – process slow/not completed/different in different countries • 1782, • Joseph II(Habsburg emp) decreed Jews had more/less same laws as Christians • 1789 • France, Nat. Assembly recognized Jews as citizens/ • During Napoleon wars in Italy/Germany • Jews on equal footing • steps were uncertain/ sometimes repealed w/changes, • European Jews began to gain rights • Russia • traditional prejudice until WWI, • police allowed to conduct pogroms: organized riots against Jews

33. Broadened Opportunities • After 1848, Jews saw general improvement: • some had full citizenship/could sit in Parliament; • from 1850-80, relatively little prejudice expressed – outside Russia, • Jews entered cabinets/govt. offices; • Associated w/socialists; • migrated west • Anti-Semitism erupted in 1870s in Germany • Dreyfus Affair, • Zionism • minority movement within Jewish community

34. Labor, Socialism and Politics to WWI • Urban proletariat and unskilled workers rose/artisans fell • working-class stopped rioting/remaking guilds • New institutions: socialism/trade unions/democracy

35. Trade Unionism • Govt.s began to extend protection to trade unions • Britain,1871 • France 1836 • Germany,1890 • Union participation marginal at first • large unions had intense opposition, but most of labor force not organized • Democracy and Political Parties • All major European states adopted broad-based electoral systems (except Russia) • Politicians couldn’t ignore workers – democracy sparked existing political parties • At this time, socialism opposed nationalism • Many workers had both sympathies • Nationalism prevailed during WWI

36. Karl Marx and the First International • Karl Marx made considerable accommodation to new practical realities; • 1864, British/French unionists founded the International Working Men’s Association • encompassed vast array of radical types; • Marx supported workers trying to reform within existing system • Violence of Paris Commune hurt socialism’s reputation • First International moved to US • dissolved 1876 • Marxism emerged as most important form of socialism

37. Great Britain: Fabianism and Early Welfare Programs • Marxism/socialism didn’t make progress in Britain • Unions/Liberal Party support grew • Until 1901, general political activity on part of labor remained limited • House of Lords removed legal protection of union funds; • Trades Union Congress launched the Labour Party: • strikes sprung up but no socialism • The Fabian Society: • Britain’s most influential socialist group, • non-Marxist intellectuals; • thought problems could be achieved gradually peacefully /democratically • British govt./parties responded slowly to problems; • Ended w/regulation of some trades/unemployment benefits/health care • Early welfare legislation only partially satisfactory

38. France: “Opportunism” Rejected • Two factions of French socialists: • Jaures wanted cooperation w/middle-class ministries to ensure legislation; • Guesde argued socialists couldn’t support bourgeois cabinet they must overthrow • govt. response to Dreyfus Affair: • 1899,socialist Alexander Millerand appointed to cabinet

39. Second International • Founded 1889 for unification of parties; • Debated issue of opportunism: • cabinet participation by socialists; • Amsterdam Congress condemned it, • Jaures accepted decision and formed the united Socialist Party • French labor had roots in anarchism was uninterested w/politics • Confederation Generale du Travail appealed to these workers w/syndicalism/ strikes • Middle-class Radical ministry used troops to suppress strikes

40. Germany: Social Democrats and Revisionism • German Social Democratic Party(SPD) • Kept Marxist socialism alive; • SDP founded 1875, • divided b/t reform advocates/revolutionaries • Bismarck’s Repression of the SPD: • Thought socialism would undermine politics/society, • used excuses to push antisocialist laws – even w/this pressure, SPD polled more votes in elections to the Reichstag • Repression didn’t work, • Bismarck tried social welfare legislation • accident insurance/old age/disability pensions

41. The Erfurt Program • Emp William II forced Bismarck’s resignation • allowed antisocialist legislation to expire, party needed to decide attitude towards empire • Erfurt Program: • 1891, declared imminent doom of capitalism • necessity of socialist ownership; • decided to accomplish through legal participation, thought revolution was inevitable • opposed in theory, but worked in institutions • Debate over Revisionism: • Eduard Bernstein saw inner contradictions of capitalism not developing, thought that revisions were needed • Revisionism; generated heated debate • finally condemned(Reichstag was too weak) • While calling for revolution, SPD used Revisionism, worked for electoral gains • Augus14,1914, SPD members of Reichstag • voted unanimously for war credit

42. Russia: Industrial Development and the Birth of Bolshevism •  Russia entered industrial age and confronted problems, • Dealt with political and economic problems at the same time, reflected in Russian socialism

43. Witte’s Program for Industrial Growth • Alexander II and Nicholas II determined for industrial power • Sergei Witte led Russia into industrial age • pursued planned economic development/high taxes/ protective tariffs/gold standard/efficiency, • established strong financial relationships w/French money market • led to diplomatic cooperation • Favored heavy industries • Russia railway system doubled in length • Coal output tripled, • more iron/textile production, • Factory system was used more

44. Effects of Witte • Industrialism made landowners feel that foreign capitalists were getting too much of the profit • small/significant proletariat emerged w/poor conditions/little state protection: • Witte enacted 11.5 hour workday but strikes/discontent continued • Peasants still burdened • free peasants owned land through the mir(village); • kulaks: free peasants who worked for larger noble estates

45. Social Revolutionary Party: • founded 1901, • reached back to Populists • opposed industrialism/wanted community • Constitutional Democratic Party:(Cadets) • formed 1903, • drew members from local councils (zemstvos) • wanted parliament regime w/civil liberties

46. Lenin’s Early Thought and Career: • Russians had no representation, • leading Russian Marxist was Gregory Plekhanov • taught Vladimir Ulyanov(Lenin); • Lenin spent much time in Switzerland • Became involved in disputes of Russian Social Democratic exiles • Criticized both accommodation/trade unionism, • thought tight/elite party should teach masses

47. 1903 London Congress • Lenin forced a split: • Lenin’s faction assumed name Bolsheviks(majority) • Other faction assumed Menshevik(minority) • Bolsheviks wanted elite professional revolutionaries • Menshiviks wanted large mass membership • 1905, Lenin urged socialist revolution to unite proletariat/peasantry • Lenin’s ideas of Bolshevik elite and united proletariat/peasantry influenced revolution: • Bolsheviks seized power 1917

48. The Revolution of 1905 • Nicholas II dismissed Witte 1903 to try to quell resentment; • entered losing war w/Japan; • Nov22,1905, priest Father Gapon led petitioners to Winter Palace in St. Petersburg • Troops opened fire, killing hundreds: • Bloody Sunday: • ordinary Russians thought they couldn’t trust their govt. • Revolutionary disturbances spread, • Officials assassinated/strikes/ mutinies • Oct 1905, worker groups(soviets) controlled St. Petersburg: • Nicholas II recalled Witte/issued October Manifesto: promised Russia constitutional govt.

49. Aftermath - 1906 • Nicholas announced election of the Duma (representative body); • April elections turned radical group of reps • tsar replaced Witte w/P. A. Stolypin, • persuaded him to dissolve the Duma • 2nd and 3rd elections held, 3rd Duma was pliable, • Nicholas II could recapture political influence • Stolypin started repressing rebellion • condemned almost 700 peasants to death/cancelled redemptive payments • hatred of Stolypin still widespread, • assassinated 1911, govt. muddled along • Monk Grigory Rasputin ascended by allegedly curing Nicholas’ son; • influence undermined govt./increased discontent