The Building of European Supremacy

1. The Building of European Supremacy Chapter 24 EQs: How did society, economics, politics change in the second half of the 19th century? How did the role of women change? What impact did Marxism and anti-Semitism have on the era?

2. Introduction • This chapter discusses the period from 1860 right up to WWI in Europe during which Europe’s political, social and economic institutions took on the primary characteristics that define them today • Nation states were now formed with large voting electorates (though still no women), political parties (numerous factions), centralized bureaucracies, and mandatory military conscription • Businesses became corporations and labor/trade unions formed…white collar workers grew and cities became more important • Socialism became a defining force and welfare states were developing...a rise of militarism and defensiveness by states (pre-Imperial) saw increased taxes • The continent was #1 in industrial production and became entwined in the global economy through imperialism

3. Population Grows like a MIGHTY OAK • Again, as with the beginning of the century, Europe’s population doubled in a short period of time (226 million in 1850 to 401 million in 1900 to 447 million in 1910) • Early period trends (1850-1880) involved mass migrations from the country to the city, which created tension…later period (1880 and beyond) migrations saw immigration out of Europe also helped relieve population pressures (you know where they went of course) • Growth led to greater concerns for birth control/contraception…still others went around preaching small families as a way to avoid poverty

4. The Second Industrial Revolution • The first Industrial Revolution focused on simple production…textiles, steam energy and iron…the second Industrial Revolution was more complex…steel, electricity, chemicals and oil • Henry Bessemer discovered a new processes in the 1850s to make steel • Increased scientific research led to the discovery of useful chemicals, for storage, food preservation, the creation of plastics, detergents and medicines • Then there was the proliferation of electricity from various sources (water powered, coal powered and oil powered) and the development of the internal combustion engine (Daimler)

5. The Second Industrial Revolution • Despite the development of new industries, the economy was subject to downturns and many occurred in the late 19th century…1873 and 1883 were years that saw mini-depressions • Agriculture took the biggest hit in late 19th century as crop prices began to decline dramatically…coupled with bad weather (from more volcano explosions) and a decrease in labor (immigrant laborers leaving) • The depressions were short lived as active governments promoted new marketing schemes for their countries products, allowed companies to arrange in business cartels/trade associations and increased tariffs dramatically (a pre-cursor to the reasons for WWI) • Increased imperialism in Africa and Asia also helped to relieve economic pressures in Europe as competition increased for new products and new markets…BUT the tinder box was SET TO BURN for WAR!

6. The “Social Network” in Europe • This was the age of the Middle Class…they had become less revolutionary • It (middle class) was not a single homogenous unit, but one divided among industrialists, bankers, small business owners, white collar professionals, shopkeepers, teachers, etc. • Some white collar workers formed into a petite bourgeoisie of secretaries, clerks, low level bureaucrats…many had come out of the working class to hold higher positions through increased education opportunities • Most importantly this emerging sector contributed to the rise of consumer goods as they demanded the conveniences provided by the new industries of the day

7. Cities Change • From 1850 to 1911, the percentage of urban dwellers in France changed from 25% to 44%...in Germany it was 30% to 60% • Some cities had to adapt! One was Paris…a mess of streets that ran in all directions and at all angles (for instance, at the Arc de Triumph, had 12 streets radiating from it) and streets were narrow and difficult to navigate • Emperor Napoleon III commissioned George Haussmann to change the layout of Paris…many narrow street were criss-crossed by wide expansive boulevards…more open spaces were created and several public works projects were built (Paris Opera House, Gare St. Lazare, The Basilica of the Sacred Heart and, of course, the Eiffel Tower)

8. Cities Change – Suburbs and sanitation • Rails branched out from urban areas and ran trains with greater frequency, creating a commuter culture…new living centers sprung up on the fringes of urban areas for the middle and upper class who wished to escape the “urban decay” • These groups desired clean living conditions and more space than what was available in the city • However, cities took greater strides in the 19th C to deal with sanitation issues…before, sewers were open (ran down the sides of streets) and waste disposal was virtually non-existent • An outbreak of Cholera in various different cities in the 1830s and 1840s led to changes in water delivery and sanitation removal…sewers were buried under streets while newer water delivery systems, made of metals rather than concrete and brick, were built to deliver water from more rural areas where water was cleaner

9. The Woman’s Experience • In the mid-19th century, there were several disabilities that all women in society suffered from • No property • Women virtually could not own property…most lost their rights to property upon marriage as anything they could possibly inherit went legally to their husband by name…and an unmarried woman was virtually on the fringe regardless • Many laws came late to relieve these issues…GB passed the Married Woman’s Property Act in 1882…in other countries is was not until the early 1900s where a woman’s earnings could actually be her own • Legal Issues • Divorces were near impossible in most countries (ie. In England before 1857 it took an act of Parliament to get one!)…even in cases of adultery, infidelity had to be legally proven before a divorce was granted • Unlike today where a mother usually gets the kids in a custody dispute, the man always had legal rights over children • A woman’s body was not even her own, contraception and abortion were illegal • Lack of Education • No brainer here, most institutions of higher learning did not accept women UNLESS they were one ran by women (FEW existed)…even in most systems of public education, the teaching was geared toward males as the currents in attitude were that women were to become domestics, NOT a part of the working force in any manner

10. The Woman’s Experience • The types of jobs growing in number in the 19th century became the “woman’s job”…teachers (elementary) and clerical/secretarial in a white collar environment…in most cases these jobs involved minimal training or education (at the time) and the wages were still low • The only major manufacturing job for women was the textile industry…in clothing manufacturing, parts of the industry that involved detailed work not capable of a machine, were free-lanced or “put out” by the manufacturer to women…in other cases, the work was done in a “sweat shop” environment…overall, the wages were still very poor for this kind of work. • Most women filling these jobs were generally unmarried…once married, they were usually forced out of those positions into a role of domesticity until the children were old enough to work themselves…in most cases, the more prosperous the job the husband had, the less likely ANY employment for a women was going to be allowed…social class/status played the key role in this • Another WORKING experience all together was prostitution…low income women, women who could not find work in any of the above or orphaned/homeless women generally filled this position in society…and contrary to stories, most of these women were 17-25 (children were a rarity and most women above 25 either found employment or even got married to clients

11. The Woman’s Experience • There was a vast difference between women in the working class and those in the growing middle class…income defined this difference • The 19th century created a Cult of Domesticity…though limited in the role of wife and mother on the surface, a woman at home played a major role…middle class women were the consumers, they made the important shopping decisions…they were responsible for child rearing, though even in some households that responsibility fell to a nanny or governess…even then women had to represent their family and their husbands, in social events/situations • Middle class women had time to be engaged in volunteer and charity activity (of course, many women started charity organizations and movements in the late 19th century)…connecting this to the church was prime, as women volunteered in drives for the poor, as medical assistants (not nurses), and preaching chastity and temperance • In terms of family size, married women began to buy into the concept of a smaller family is a happy family…birthrates declined as middle class families sought to consume more rather than feed mouths

12. The Feminist Movements Emerges • European feminism was nothing new in the 19th century…Mary Wollstonecraft had written/advocated for women’s rights at the end of the 18th century…there were men who supported greater freedoms for women and representation in the political process (John Stuart Mill)…the main problem was the conservative order who did not wish to see a change in the status quo • Voting rights were the first easy target for feminists in the mid 19th century…some moderate women (Millicent Fawcett) used political means to secure the vote (through their husbands in government…some women were radical • The most radical was Emmeline Pankhurst…Irish (and feisty), she used confrontations, sit-ins and even advocated violence (vandalism) in order to gain suffrage for women…Pankhurst and her followers of course spent time in jail and conservatives used their behavior as an excuse for NOT allowing suffrage…it was not until after women contributed to the war effort in WWI that they saw voting rights in Britain…other countries however, took many more years to give women voting rights • Germany also gave women the right to vote post-WWI after considerable political wrangling…France had feminists but the movement was generally stymied by the church as “unholy”…women in France did not get the right to vote until after WWII…only Norway saw women voting before the wars in Europe

13. DAS EINE JUDEN!!! • If you recall previous eras, Jewish populations were considered doormats in western Europe…only in Eastern Europe (Prussia, Poland, Austria) had they gained “some” acceptance in society…Liberalism saw rights extended to Jews in many nations • HOWEVER, Jews were still scapegoat-ed in many areas…in Russia, Jews became targets…the government repressed Jews as subversive and blamed Jews for the root causes of poverty in the nation…several massacres (pogroms) occurred in Russia in the late 1800s • Despite earning greater freedom and representation, Jews were still subject to prejudices…the depressions of the 1870s and 1880s saw blame placed on Jewish greed by growing leagues of anti-Semites • Some Jewish leaders saw the pogroms and anti-Semitism movements as a call for demanding a Jewish state (Zionism)…Most leaders in the Jewish community saw such prejudice as short-term and believed that liberal governments would continue to protect their interests…said belief, of course, would prove disastrous

14. The Political Landscape • As the working class grew in numbers and importance its political standing improved…the urban proletariat became increasingly concerned with improving conditions…eliminating poverty, improving housing, cleaning up and making the workplace safer and eliminating medical costs • Trade Unions formed in the 1870s as the first political entity…liberal governments throughout Europe allowed their formation…unions were as vigilant as they were here, organizing large strikes and work stoppages to achieve their demands of greater pay and better working conditions • Increased democratization also improved relations between the working class and the government, as governments were comprised of a multitude of different political factions (one thing that separates European from American politics)…the typical European government could have 3 or more political parties in office at any given time with the majority in power usually having slightly above 50% (never a clear majority in power) • Karl Marx himself in his later years made accommodations to the political changes…though he predicted the disintegration of capitalism, he still advocated the formation of a socialist political party (The First International)…though short lived as a movement, Marx’s party managed to collect data, keep the populace informed on labor issues (propaganda), and led continued academic debates over the shortcomings of capitalism…it also managed to reduce the influence of more radical socialists bent on anarchy rather than politicization

15. The Political Landscape • Great Britain • France • Germany

16. Pre-Revolutionary Russia