Economic Advance and Social Unrest

1. Economic Advance and Social Unrest

2. Britain’s Industrial Leadership • Natural resources, • adequate capital, • native technological skills • a growing food supply • a mobile social structure • strong foreign and domestic demand for goods • Latin American wars of independence opened markets to Britain, • United States/Canada wanted British goods, • Controlled markets of southern Asia

3. Migration • More people living in cites • Pressure on physical resources of cities • Railroads, canals, improved regular roads people could leave place of birth easily

4. Railroads • Necessary for heavy transport over long distance • First steam‑powered locomotive invented c. 1800 but it attracted little attention • George Stephenson reduced the weight, improved the efficiency, • Helped to build the first railway in Great Britain, 1825 • Great era of railway construction in Great Britain, on European continent • In United States came after 1850

5. Labor Force • Varied levels in the early 19th century • Varied from decent wages to subsistence wage • Some virtual slave labor level jobs • Women and Children in coal mines • City based labor • Larger percentage of artisans, craftsmen • Workers slowly lost control over their ability to set their own wages (Proletarianization) • New factories and machines eliminated skilled labor • Lower costs = more profits for factories • Cottage system eliminated • Less skill required for a specific task, less generalization • Factories determined the hours and type of work laborers could obtain • Master and apprentice system eliminated • Artisans lost ability to control or create guilds

6. Chartism • In the late 1830s, Britain acquired a mass working class movement organized around a "People's Charter” • Movement began when in 1836 William Lovett (1800-1877) formed London Working Men's Association. The Charter had Six Points - all connected to how Parliament was run • Universal male suffrage • Annual elections • Secret ballots • Equal electoral districts • Abolition of property qualifications for MPs • Payments of members of parliament. • The movement was radical and quite sophisticated. • Not entirely united as a movement - some would not accept violence. Once conditions improved in late 1840s it lost some of its force. But at one stage it had the support of 1/2 the people.

7. Early 19th c. Social life Class, Family, and Gender

8. Changes in Social Structure • Growth of bourgeoisie • (bankers, factory and mine owners, merchants, shopkeepers, managers, lawyers, doctors) • Values of work, thrift, ambition, caution • critics said materialism, selfishness, callousness • Working class made up of rural laborers • farmers, cottage workers), miners, • city workers • artisans, factory workers, servants • Artisans • construction, printing, tailoring, dress making, food preparation, craftspeople were being squeezed by cheap, factory produced goods • Servants outnumbered factory workers and the chief profession of working class (esp. women)

9. Family Structure • Family transformed from being basic unit of production and consumption to being just basic unit of consumption • Early 19th c. families employed as a unit • Mid/late 19th c. – factory work for unskilled, unmarried women and children, • supervised by some skilled men • Separation of families

10. Child Labor • High skilled workers could afford to send children to school • Low skilled workers had their children work with them • English Factory Act of 1883 • No children under 9 • Limited hours for children 9-13 • Required factories to pay for education • Work day for adults and teens- 12 hours • Younger children –4 – 6 hours

11. Depiction of Society in Novels(Not in the book- just to add substance • 18th c. fiction – focus on individual personalities • 19th c. fiction – portrayal of social life in all varieties (manufacturers, financiers, starving students, workers, bureaucrats, prostitutes, underworld figures, thieves, aristocratic men and women) • Honore de Balzac • 95 novels • many characters driven to climb social ladder • Charles Dickens • Also climbing social ladder (father in debtors’ prison) • Daily life of London • Affects of industrialization and urbanization • Problems of poor • Charlotte Bronte • Jane Eyre • Life of orphaned girl, becomes a governess, refuses to get ahead through marriage • George Sand (Amandine-Aurore Dupin) • Female French novelist • Dressed like a man, smoked cigars

12. Women in Early Industrial Revolution • Gender division of labor • Low paid factory work for single women • Wages for men allowed some to support family without wife working • Supplements from working children • Factory work still in the minority • Most women were domestic servants or in cottage industries • Woman’s work more narrowly defined

13. Domestication and Subordination of Women • Domestication • Women should live their lives within the domestic sphere • No education, no professional career, no political life • Women were legal incompetents (children, insane, criminals)

14. Privileged Classes • Boys attended secondary schools/ girls home or church school • Men wore practical clothing: • long trousers, short jackets, dark colors, • no makeup (previously common – aristocracy), • simple cut hair • Women dressed for decorative effect: • Tightly corseted waists, • long hair, requiring hours of brushing and pinning up, • long, cumbersome skirts • Science reinforced stereotype • Women were once seen as sexually insatiable (Middle Ages), now described as incapacitated by menstruation and largely uninterested in sex (morally superior) – “Victorian woman” • Physicians and scholars considered women mentally inferior

15. Study Group/Individual Notes • Create Notes on the following subjects • Problems of Crime and Order • New Police Forces • Prison Reform • Share your notes with your study group

16. Tsk.. Tsk. . . Tsk. . • You’re not supposed to be reading this. .

17. Problems of Crime and Order • Political and economic elites in Europe were profoundly concerned about social order • Two major views about containing crime and criminals emerged during the nineteenth century: prison reform and better police systems • On of the key feature of the theory of a policed society is that crime may be prevented by the visible presence of law-enforcement officers • Government used to send criminal to prison ships called Hulks (not so incredible) • Individual cell for each prisoner and long periods of separation and silence among prisoners

18. Classical Economics • Economists whose thought derived largely from Adam Smith dominated private and public discussions of industrial and commercial policy, and often associated with Laissez-faire • Favored economic growth through competitive free enterprise • Distrusted government action • Government should • maintain sound currency, enforce contracts, protect property, and impose low tariffs/taxes • Maintain enough armed forces and naval power to protect the nation’s economic structure and foreign trade • Zollverein=free trading union

19. Thomas Malthus • Proposed that the population would out grow the food supply • Working class+ more $$ = more children = more food and wages needed • David Ricardo • Iron Law of Wages • Wages go up- Parents have more children • More Children working = Lower wages • Lower wages = less children

20. Govt Policies and Classical Economics • France – • July Monarchy built large building projects, • Did not address the issue of poverty • Germany • The Zollverein – free trading union to eliminate tariffs • Britain • Jeremy Bentham • Used Utilitarianism as guide for govt. policies • 1834 Poor Law • Dispersed relief at workhouses • Poverty became an official social stigma • Repealed the Corn Laws • Abolish tariff on grain that would lead to lower food prices • Irish potato famine real reason • Started period of free trade in Britain

21. Early Socialists- French Utopian Socialists Count Claude Henry de Saint-Simon (1760-1825) • Planned economy - • Believed modern society requires modern management. Government by a board of directors. • Did not agree with wealth redistribution, but of making all not-poor by good management. • Followers known as Saint-Simonians Charles Fourier (1772-1837) - Socialist Communities • Dealt with problem of tedium in work - each worker have several jobs and wander around from one to another so as to avoid tedium. • Proposed that special industrial communities be set up. There were called Phalansteres or Phalanxes. They  were communities on about 200 acres of land with 1500 people. • One set up in the US - Brook Farm, Mass, 1842-1847.  T • Only place this sort of socialism has ever worked is Israel - the kibbutz is an example of a Phalansteres.

22. Louis Blanc (1811-1882) - (Not really a Utopian.) • Leader of industrial workers in the Paris region. • Part of the French Cabinet (main government committee) in France in just after the Revolution of 1848. • The state should promote socialist programs and guarantee employment through "National workshops."  Set up for a while, until liberals displaced Blanc from the government. Pierre Joseph Proudhon (more an Anarchist) • Claimed that the worker was source of all wealth, and so would be able to use it. • He ended up working for Louis III Napoleon.

23. Early English Socialism Robert Owen (1771-1858) • Born poor, • Important and successful factory owner. • Committed to improving life for workers. In his industrial center at  New Lanark - • Built houses and schools for children. • Did not pay workers off during a depression. • Made a Profit. • He later organized an unsuccessful copy in the US at New Harmony. • Owen's Aims: • Thought people could be made better by better conditions (goes back to Locke). • Shows no need for bad conditions or low wages. • Basically paternalistic. • Ended his long life as a spiritualist • The Grand National Consolidated Trade Union • The GNCTU was a mass union founded by Owen in 1830s. • Tried to unite all workers into once huge union. • Suffered a collapse in the 1830s. • The idea that workers should be organized in unions was central to later British socialism.

24. Anarchism • abolition of both capitalism and the state supported by followers of Blanc, • Urged development of a professional revolutionary vanguard to attack capitalist society • Attacked the banking system • Society should be organized on the basis of mutualism

25. Marxism • Termed communism • Abolition of private property • Derived from German Hegelianism, French socialism, and British classical economics • Conflict between dominant and subordinate social groups generated conditions that led to the emergence of a new dominant social group. These new social relationships, in turn, generated new discontent, conflict, and development • Fate of proletariat is fate of humanity • Human history must be understood rationally and as a whole • Class conflict become simplified during the early nineteenth century into a struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat • Proletariats eventually will take over and organize production through propertyless and classless communist society

26. Karl Marx(1818-1883) • German. Born in Trier in Rhineland. • Father was Jewish convert to Lutheranism for employment reasons. • Marx himself was often anti-Semitic. • Married to an aristocrat's daughter. • Went to Universities of Bonn, Berlin and Jena. • Published radical papers in Koln and Belgium, [Rheinische Zeitung] until 1849 when he came to live in London for many years.

27. Friedrich Engels(1820-1895) • German manufacturer's son. • Lived in England and managed factory in Manchester. • Always politically aware and interested in the plight of the workers.   • His Condition of the Working Class in England (1845) remains a classic account of the poverty in early industrial Manchester.  • Engels supported Marx for many years. • Marx's only real friend. Met 1844 • Co-wrote the Communist Manifesto with Marx

28. Marx and the First International 1864-1876 • (The International Working Men's Association) • Marx worked to unite all the socialist organizations • It included, • Trade unionists, socialists, anarchists, and Polish nationalists. • He made an accommodation to the evolutionary trends in Socialism.

29. The Appeal of Marxism • It is important to note that Marxism was very appealing to many in Europe. • Authority as a Science:  • Marxism claimed to be "scientific." • Marx said he had proved his doctrines. There was the belief what he said would inevitably come about.

30. 1848 Revolutions • Series of liberal/nationalistic revolutions erupted across Continent, similar conditions: • severe food shortages • widespread unemployment • bad living condition • Extreme nationalism, especially in Austria • Dynamic force for change originated with political liberals; • pushed for more civil liberty representation unregulated economy; motivated by British success • liberals tried to motivate urban working classes, then they began to fight each other • Results stunning: • French monarchy fell, others shaken; • revolutions were false spring, didn’t establish liberal/national states; • liberals isolated themselves from working class, fell easy prey to reactionary armies

31. France: The Second Republic and Louis Napoleon • Liberal opposition to corrupt Louis Philippe minister Guizot hosted criticizing banquets; • poor harvests brought working class on liberals side; • govt. banned banquets • Feb21,1848 Parisian workers paraded • clashed on Feb22, • Guizot resigned • Louis Philippe abdicated, fled on Feb24

32. The National Assembly and Paris Workers • Liberal opposition led by Alphonse de Lamartine made provisional govt., • wanted to call for assembly to write republican constitution • working classes wanted social rev. as well • led by Louis Blanc, they demanded representation in cabinet: Blanc+2 other radicals made ministers and govt. organized national workshops for work/relief for unemployed • Apr23, election(male suffrage) chose National Assembly, • controlled by moderates and conservatives • small landowning peasants feared socialists • In May, govt. troops/Parisian crowd clashed; • National Assembly phased out workshops – • June, barricades went up in Pari • General Cavaignac moved to destroy opposition • killed 3.4K: drive for social revolution had ended

33. Emergence of Louis Napoleon • Uprising confirmed political power of conservative property holders, • Wanted safety for property; • 1848 presidential election Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (nephew): • doomed the republic • Louis dedicated to own fame, • modern dictator who quarreled w/Assembly: • 1851, Assembly refused to let president run for reelection • Dec2, Napoleon seized power; • troops dispersed Assembly, • he called for new elections: 200 people died, 26K arrested, 10K transported to Algeria • Napoleon elected through plebiscite, • Dec1852, plebiscite approved creation of empire (2nd time in 50 yrs • France turned from republic to Ceasarism)

34. Frenchwomen in 1848: • major feminist activity 1848-52, • some even tried to vote • Vesuvians: most radical group, demonstrations lost support from modest feminists • Organized Voix des femmes(Women’s voice), newspaper and later society; members relatively conservative, argued for more liberty – provisional govt. ignored them • French feminists defeated and frustrated, crackdown on clubs, close of workshops repressed women – • women associated w/newspaper tried to organize workers groups • Jeanne Deroin/Pauline Roland arrested/tried/ imprisoned • by 1852, entire feminist movement eradicated

35. The Habsburg Empire: Nationalism Resisted • Habsburg empire susceptible to revolution: • borders cut national lines/govt. rejected liberal institutes/perpetuated serfdom • Even Metternich urged reform, • 1848, confronted w/big rebellions: Vienna/Prague/Hungary/Italy/Germany

36. The Vienna Uprising: • Louis Kossuth, • Magyar nationalist • Hungarian diet-ist, demanded Hungarian independence(March3,1848), • 10 days later, students led disturbances in Vienna; • Army failed to restore order • Metternich resigned/fled • Emperor Ferdinand(r.1835-48) promised moderate/liberal constitution: • radical students formed democratic clubs • May17, emperor/imperial court fled to Innsbruck • Govt. of Vienna controlled by over 200 concerned people • Habsburg govt. actually feared serf uprising • emancipated serfs immediately after Vienna uprising • Hungarian diet abolished serfdom March1848 • serfs now had little reason to support revolution

37. The Magyar Revolt • Magyar leaders of March Rev. guaranteed no central govt. in Vienna • Hungarian diet passed the March Laws: • ensured religious equality/jury trials/free press/nobility taxes; • Emp Ferdinand approved measures • Magyars hoped to have independent Hungarian/Habsburg state; • tried to annex Transylvania/Croatia/Eastern Habsburg Empire; • national groups resisted, didn’t want Hungarian language imposed – • late March, Vienna govt. sent Count Joseph Jellachich to aid national groups; • by Sept, he was leading invasion force against Hungary (liberalism v. nationalism)

38. Czech Nationalism • Mid-March, Czech nationalists demanded Bohemia/Moravia be permitted to constitute autonomous Slavic state(like Hungary), • conflict b/t Czechs/Germans • Czechs summoned congress of Slavs in Prague: under Francis Palacky • Pan-Slavic Congress issued manifesto calling for national Slav equality/ stop to foreign Slav repression • idea of Pan-Slavism important later in history, • Russia uses to try to gain support of nationalist minorities • Radical insurrection broke in Prague day Congress closed(June12); • General Prince Alfred Windischgraetz • suppressed radicals by June17; local Germans approved • “divide and conquer” worked

39. Rebellion in Northern Italy: • in addition to Hungary/Czechs, Habsburg faced war in northern Italy; • rev. against Habsburgs began in Milan, March18; 5 days later, Austrian commander retreated • King Charles of Piedmont wanted to expand kingdom of Lombardy, • aided rebels; Austrians losing until General Radetzky defeated Piedmont/suppressed revolution • Vienna/Hungary needed to be recaptured: • Emp. Ferdinand returned to capital, • new assembly trying to write constitution; when new insurrection broke in Oct., imperial govt. crushed it; • Emp Ferdinand abdicated for his nephew Francis Joseph(r.1848-1916) • real power lay w/Prince Felix Schwarzenberg(army) • Jan 5,1849, troops occupied Budapest, by March, Austria imposed military rule over Hungary/repudiated constitution • Magyars revolted again, crushed w/support from Tsar Nicholas I of Russia • Habsburg govt. survived gravest internal challenge

40. Italy: Republicanism Defeated • Many Italians hoped King Charles of Piedmont would drive Austria away • liberal/ nationalistic hope shifted to Pope Pius IX w/liberal reputation • in Rome, political radicalism on rise • Democratic radical killed Count Pelligrino Rossi (Nov15,1848) • liberal minister of Papal States • Next day, demonstrations forced pope to appoint radical ministry • pope fled to Naples • Feb1849, radicals proclaimed Roman Republic, repubs flocked to Rome: Giuseppe Mazzini/Giuseppe Garibaldi hoped to unite Italy • March, radicals in Piedmont fored Charles Albert to renew war w/Austria; • After immediate defeat at Battle of Novara, King abdicated for son, Victor Emmanuel II(r.1849-78): • defeat meant Roman Republic must defend itself alone • Louis Napoleon of Franc supported pope/didn’t want powerful Italy, • Attacked Rome/restored pope: • Early June, 10K French soldiers siege Rome/dissolved Roman Republic – Pius IX returned/renounced liberalism/became conservative

41. Germany: Liberalism Frustrated • Wuerttemberg/Saxony/Hanover/Bavaria all had insurrections for liberal govt/greater German unity • major rev. occurred in Prussia

42. Revolution in Prussia: • March1848, large disturbances erupted in Berlin • Frederick William IV believed trouble came from foreigners, • refused to attack Berliners/announced limited reforms • king also called for Prussian constituent to from constitution; • next day, saluted slain subjects/made concessions/implied that Prussia would aid movement towards unified Germany (monarchy capitulated) • Prussian constituent assembly were radical/democratic • Frederick William IV ignored them • liberal ministry resigned/replaced by conservatives • Apr1849, assembly dissolved/monarch proclaimed own constitution: 3-class voting: • all adult males could vote, but weighed by ability to pay taxes, • ministry/Prussian army responsible to king alone

43. The Frankfurt Parliament • May18,1848, reps from all German states gathered in Frankfurt to revise organization of German Confederation, • wanted to write moderate/liberal constitution; • Frankfurt Parliament lost support of workers/artisan by not restoring guilds(liberals wanted laissez faire)/divided them permanently • Frankfurt Parliament called in troops of German Confed. to suppress radical insurrection(Sept,1848) • liberals didn’t want violence/destruction of property • Parliament floundered on inclusion of Austria in united Germany • Grossdeutsch wanted inclusion • Kleindeutsch wanted exclusion – Austria rejected unification, • Germany always looked to Prussia for leadership anyways • Parliament produced constitution(March27,1849) • afterwards, delegates offered crown to Frederick William IV • he rejected, though monarchies came by grace of God, not constitutions – on his refusal, • Frankfurt Parliament began to dissolve • troops drove off remaining members • German liberals couldn’t step up to the plate • failed to unite Germany/ confront realities of power in German states