Slides prepared by Mary Waterstreet, St. Ambrose University

1. Chapter 11 Observational Learning: Watching, Listening, and Remembering • Slides prepared by • Mary Waterstreet, St. Ambrose University

2. 11.1 Behavioral Processes http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A2syxXPR7xY

3. 11.1 Behavioral Processes • Learning by Copying • Learning and Memory in Everyday Life— What Can a Child Learn from a Teletubby? • Alternatives to Imitation • Social Transmission of Information

4. Learning by Copying • Observational learning—learning new behavior from watching another demonstrate the action (also, social learning). • Copying = doing what one observes another doing. • Facebook memory • In observational learning researchers cannot reliably predict learning outcome. • Difficult to predict what is perceived. • Nothing compels observer to copy.

5. Learning by Copying • True imitation—copying that reproduces motor actions. • Emulation—copying that replicates an outcome (goal) without reproducing the specific motor actions used to achieve the outcome.

6. Bandura and Observational Learning • Bandura and colleagues (1961): Will preschool children become more aggressive after observing aggressive adults? • Adult acted aggressively toward Bobo doll. • Children imitated (modeled) what they saw. • Children were not rewarded for their actions or for their interactions with the Bobo doll. • Thus, similarities in actions did NOT result from instrumental conditioning.

7. Scenes from Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1961) Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models, Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 575–582.

8. Bandura and Observational Learning • In Bandura study, children were provoked; denied toy immediately before test. • Children who were NOT provoked (but observed adult aggression) were less likely to copy. • Meaning, in some cases viewing can inhibit, rather than increase, aggressive behavior. • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pDtBz_1dkuk • Findings: • Viewing adult aggression strongly influences child behavior, even without reward or punishment. • Leaning occurs during observation NOT imitation.

9. True Imitation: Copying Actions • Two-action test—technique to demonstrate imitation abilities by exposing naive animals to demonstrators who use different actions to achieve a single goal. • Can identify true imitation.

10. True Imitation: Copying Actions • Experiments with quail: • Naive quail observed a demonstrator quail earn food for lever pressing with its head (pecking) or feet (stepping). • Quail tended to imitate the specific actions they observed, illustrating true imitation.

11. Two-Action Test of True Imitation in Quail Adapted from Akins & Zentall, 1996.

12. True Imitation: Copying Actions • Experiments with children and chimpanzees: • Children and chimpanzees observed adult humans use one of two techniques (poke or twist) to open a plastic box containing a reward. • Both children and chimpanzees tended to use the observed box-opening technique. • But children more likely to copy non-essential details; details not part of opening box. • Illustrates both chimps and children can truly imitate.

13. Two-Action Test of True Imitation in Children and Chimpanzees Adapted from Whiten et al., 1996.

14. Emulation: Copying Goals • Most evidence of emulation is seen through the two-action test. • In box-opening task children more likely to replicate precise actions. • Chimps more likely to emulate using their own opening methods. • In experiments that replicated box-opening task with adult humans: • Adults more likely to emulate than truly imitate opening box to get reward (similar to chimps).

15. Stimulus Matching: Copying Outcomes of Specific Actions • Stimulus matching—imitation in which generated stimuli can be directly compared with observed stimuli. • In vocal learning, use memory of sound to imitate sound with own vocal organs (e.g., speech or song learning). • Many birds learn songs by imitation.

16. Stimulus Matching: Copying Outcomes of Specific Actions • Template model of song learning—young birds easily learn songs similar to their species innate “template.” • Three basic phases: • Memorization • Practice • Appropriate utilization

17. Stimulus Matching: Copying Outcomes of Specific Actions • Some birds constrained to specific sound sequences; others (mynah birds, parrots) can precisely reproduce sounds of other species. • Other examples of mammal vocal learning: • Some dolphins can imitate sounds. • Some humpback whales imitate whale songs. • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P6KWQYaaOJI Kelvin Aitken/Peter Arnold, Inc.

18. Social Learning Theory • Social learning theory—an individual’s past reinforcements will determine how that individual will act in any given situation. • Explains learning through observation. • Imitation reveals such learning. • Basic premise = behavior learned without direct reinforcement or punishment. • Acquisition is not the same as performance.

19. Social Learning Theory • Bandura has identified four basic processes for observational learning: • Attention to model. • Retention (memory of observation). • Ability to reproduce. • Motivation (imitation from vicarious reinforcement). • Status of model • Similarity to model • Desirability of outcome or goal

20. Learning and Memory in Everyday Life— What Can a Child Learn from a Teletubby? • Advantages: children might model peaceful, happy actions. • e.g., hugging, sharing • Disadvantages: children might model infantile actions. • e.g., nonsensical speech • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eC1tikkotVU&feature=related • A child’s previous behavior may best predict actions learned. Amy Sussman/Getty Images

21. Alternatives to Imitation • Laughing is contagious! • So is laughing a contagion? • Contagion = innate tendency to react emotionally to visual or acoustic stimuli that elicit similar response in other members of one’s species. • Contagion may contribute to observational conditioning. • Learning an emotional response after observing similar responses. • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zkB9uoBFbZY

22. Classical Conditioning through Contagion Donna Day/Riser/Getty Images

23. Observational Conditioning in Blackbirds Adapted from Shettleworth, 1998.

24. Stimulus Enhancement • Stimulus enhancement—one organism directs another’s attention to specific objects, events, or locations in an environment. • May result in similar actions that are not necessarily imitatedactions. • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4ddJc9a1aGQ Getty Images/Imageworks

25. Social Transmission of Information • Social transmission of information— process by which an observer learns from others’ experiences. • Books, videos, television, phones, computers, etc., facilitate transmission of knowledge and culture in complex ways. • Simple forms of information transfer in animals (e.g., rats) provide a model for the basic processes involved.

26. Learning through Social Conformity • Social Conformity = tendency to adopt the behavior of the group. • For example, rats learn food preferences from smelling a demonstrator rat’s breath. • Fire alarm • How might your family or friends influence your preferences?

27. Social Transmission of Rats’ Food Preferences Adapted from Shettleworth, 1998.

28. Active Instruction and Culture • Active instruction or explanation is a powerful means to disseminate information to be learned. • Examples: • Humans teach about culture through explanation (active instruction through speech). • Animals teach survival skills to their young. • Non-human animal examples = rare.

29. Effects of Violent Entertainment on Behavior • There are no simple answers, as Bandura has been pointing out for many years. • Models do not control others’ actions; there is choice, especially for adults. • Nevertheless, a culture that values aggression provides aggressive models for imitation or emulation.

30. Correlation between Television and Homicides in the United States Adapted from Centerwall, 1992.

31. 11.1 Interim Summary • Psychologists use “observational learning” to identify situations in which: • Learner actively monitors events. • Later, learner chooses actions based on observations. • Observational learning differs from classical and instrumental conditioning. • No way to reliably predict what individuals exposed to the actions of others will learn.

32. 11.1 Interim Summary • True imitation = copying that involves reproducing motor acts. • Can be demonstrated using a two-action test. • Single operation can be performed in at least two ways. • Seeing two organisms sequentially performing similar actions does not constitute evidence of imitation.

33. 11.1 Interim Summary • Emulation = copying that involves replicating an outcome without replicating specific motor acts. • Involves using observation to acquire information about the environment and about consequences of events within that environment. • Outcomes can be replicated independently of the specific actions that a model may have used to achieve those outcomes.

34. 11.1 Interim Summary • Seeing- and hearing-based imitation involve translation of sensory representations into motor acts that replicate observed events. • The ability to either imitate or emulate ultimately depends on the availability of memories for facts or events. • Many bird species learn songs, but among mammals, only humans and a few species of whales show similar abilities.

35. 11.1 Interim Summary • For social learning theorists, imitative learning = a special case of instrumental conditioning. • Act of copying is either directly or indirectly reinforced. • Similarity between model and observer increases the likelihood of copying. • Copying is more likely to be attempted if the observed outcome is desirable.

36. 11.1 Interim Summary • In contagion, observation of response reflexively evokes that same response. • Stimulus enhancement increases the likelihood that an animal will be repeatedly exposed to particular stimuli (and associated consequences). • Provides more opportunities for habituation, latent learning, classical conditioning, or instrumental conditioning.

37. 11.2 Brain Substrates

38. 11.2 Brain Substrates • Mirror Neurons in the Cortex • Song Learning in Bird Brains: Replicating Observed Events • Unsolved Mysteries—Why Can’t Most Mammals Imitate Sounds? • Hippocampal Encoding of Socially Transmitted Food Preferences

39. How does the Brain Translate Observational Learning? • Basic Problem: How to map observed events onto motor commands needed to generate same events? • Visual hypothesis—memories for perceived acts stored in visual cortical regions. • Direct-matching hypothesis—observing action automatically activates neural system required to perform the same act; also, stores memories for the act.

40. Mirror Neurons in the Cortex • Mirror neurons = neurons that respond during both visual observation and performance of the same action. • Specific mirror neurons in monkeys (seeing/doing). • Possible role in: • Imitation and emulation • Perceptual-motor skill learning • Interpretation of actions

41. Mirror Neurons in the Cortex • Indirect (non-invasive) measures show activity in human (and monkey) cortexes; they behave as if mirror neurons are present. • Activity corresponds to motor activity for the original specific event. • Human cortical networks respond similarly to either human OR monkey models; likewise for monkey networks. • Mirror neuron systems = basic system for imitation; no higher-level cognition required.

42. Mirror Neurons in Human Cortex? Adapted from Rizzolatti et al., 1996.

43. Mirror Neurons in the Cortex • Cortical mirror systems may connect to our other neural systems. • Might explain our cortical size and learning advantages we have over most other animals.

44. Song Learning in Bird Brains: Replicating Observed Events • Birds use the high vocal center (HVC) and robust nucleus of the archistriatum (RA) to produce songs. • Neurons in the RA act like mirror neurons. • Use Area X and lateral magnocellular nucleus of the anterior neostriatum (LMAN) to form song skill memories. Adapted from Brainard & Doupe, 2000.

45. Song Learning in Bird Brains: Replicating Observed Events • Songbirds’ vocal learning is limited to the songs of their own species. • Clarifying the neural mechanisms for bird song learning facilitates understanding of both vocal and behavioral imitation. Adapted from Brainard & Doupe, 2000.

46. Unsolved Mysteries—Why Can’t Most Mammals Imitate Sounds? • Humans and marine mammals, such as dolphins and humpback whales, can vocally imitate. • Large cortices and cerebella may provide underlying neural substrates. • Voluntary control of respiratory systems may be a key factor in vocal imitation.

47. Hippocampal Encoding of Socially Transmitted Food Preferences • In studies, observer rats exposed to food odor on demonstrator rat’s breath. • With hippocampal damage, observer rats show retrograde amnesia for socially-transmitted food preferences. • Studies of observer rats with damaged basal forebrain neurons (modulate hippocampus) show similar amnesia.

48. Hippocampal Encoding of Socially Transmitted Food Preferences • Studies of observer rats with damage to their basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (modulate cortical activity) have anterograde amnesia. • Thus, studies show that (in rats) hippocampus and basal forebrain are necessary for socially transmitted food preferences.

49. 11.2 Interim Summary • Before any action can be imitated, it must be recognized. • Mirror neurons fire the same way when a monkey performs an action and when it sees another monkey performing that action. • Neuroimaging studies correlate activation in cortical areas where mirror neurons are likely to be found with performance or observation of particular actions.

50. 11.2 Interim Summary • Many of the systems involved in performing a skill may also be involved in learning that skill through observation. • Most neural-firing changes observed in birds’ song-learning circuit occur during practice. • Genetic predispositions suggest that birds’ vocal imitation is more constrained than mammals’ behavioral imitation.