Mass HE in the Era of Expansion

1. Mass HE in the Era of Expansion 1954-1975

2. Portrait of American HE 1700 & 1975 1700 1975 US Population 250,000 215,465,000 Student enrolled 150 11,185,000 Number of faculty 5 628,000 Number of Institutions 2 3,026 Degrees conferred 15 1,665,533

3. Era of Mass HE • HE and War • Restricted research radar, bombs, planes, gases • Returning veterans • GI Bill; Subsidizing home loans • Changing nature of work: losing manufacturing jobs, rise of unions, advent of professional and technical work • Beginnings of Civil Rights Movement • 1948: Integration of military • 1950 Sweatt v Painter (TX) • 1954 Brown v Board of Ed • 1956 Hawkins v Board of Control (FL) • 1960s Johnson’s civil rights agenda • 1972 Title IX • 1973 Section 504

4. Era of Mass HE • Beginnings of Civil Rights Movement Cont. • Florida ex rel Hawkins v Board of Control • 1949: Virgil Hawkins, Bethune Cookman faculty member, applied to U of Florida law school; he and 5 other Blacks met requirements but denied admission • Sup. Ct of Fl: Equal protection clause permits state to pay for education elsewhere or create law school for Blacks; court later reconsiders, requires admission of all qualified, but grants delay • US Sup. Court: “A Negro is entitled to prompt admission to graduate professional schools…” • Hawkins withdraws application, graduates from northern law school • 1959: FL admits 1st Black to law school • HE Inst. were not taking leadership roles; the federal govt had to compel

5. Reaction to Brown Decision • South • Conservative launch “righteous crusade against integration • Southern Manifesto: Accuse Supreme Court of “clear abuse of judicial power” Use all lawful means to reverse decision • Virginia and Arkansas close public schools for at least 1 yr rather than admit Blacks • Until 1962 no Black student attended school w/Whites in MS, SC, or AL

6. Reaction in HE “The south stands at Armageddon. The battle is joined. There is not more difference in compromising the integrity of race on the playing fields than in the classroom. One break in the dike and the relentless seas will rush in and destroy us.” Georgia Gov Griffin, 1955, when Georgia Tech was to play a football game against Pittsburgh, a team with Black players, in bowl game. Tech played.

7. Era of Mass HE • HE During This Period • Institutions grew larger, more were built • 600 new publicly supported campuses • The American State University System • Unique invention and attempts to copy model in other countries • “Place a young person could go with little money, work in a store, get an education, and go out and make a life for himself” • Criticisms • Private schools accused public schools of stealing students with cheaper students • Students weren’t ready for university work • Beginnings of community college movement

8. Era of Mass HE • GI Bill; government research; development of research universities • 650 private colleges (Half have closed) • Transition of normal schools • 1st Teacher Education Institutions where called Normal schools in Germany • At first didn’t award degrees • Began awarding degrees and changed name to Teachers College or Female Seminaries • Single sex institutions become co-ed (Notre Dame/Yale/Harvard)

9. Era of Mass HE • Students of the Era • Growth enrollment by 500% from 1945 to 1975 • 2 m to 11 m; HE becomes an industry/business • Cohort changes not restricted to 18-22 • Access opens, no longer elitist • Financial aid programs provide opportunity • Faculty of the Era • Transition from Old-time Professor to New-time Professor

10. Expansion into an industry 1970 2,556 colleges/universities 1,665 4 yr 891 2 yr • 3,231 colleges/universities 1,957 4 yr 1,274 2 yr 1965 HE Act and financial aid (access) 1970 Task Force of HE Focus should be on teaching, not research— beginning of the debate……

11. External Politics: Sign of the Times Pre WW II Fear of subversives/non-conformists 1940 Bertrand Russell, mathematician/philosopher NY Supreme Court unfit to teach because he held “immoral and salacious doctrines” Role of Einstein; 40 professors fired for refusing to divulge political beliefs. Wave of intolerance following WW II 1952 Senate Judiciary Committee on Internal Security—chaired by McCarran “The Communist party of the US has put forth every effort to infiltrate the teaching professions…..agents of the Kremlin have been remarkably successful……enlisted the support of at least 3,500 professors.””

12. McCarthy: Senate Committee on Gov’t Operations • Goal: to rid the academy of Communists and Communist thinkers: “Academic freedom means their right to force you to hire them to teach your children a philosophy in which you do not believe” 1949 Conant, Harvard president: Because Communists surrender “intellectual integrity” they are unfit to discharge the duties of a teacher in this country” AAUP position: Communist Party was legal; faculty have the right to affiliate; but Communism requires that the believer give up freedom so a Communist can not be a free person. No protection for Communists

13. Era of Mass HE • Student Activism • Prior to 1960s • Generally peaceful • JFK idealism, New Frontier • Assassination leads to disenchantment • Beginnings of movement toward different prospective • Feb 1960: 4 Black students (Greensboro, NC) • Civil Rights: peaceful sit ins, marches, boycotts, reactions, bombings • Gains support on campuses in the north • Fund raising, freedom riders, voter registration • War in Vietnam • 1965 bombing of N Vietnam • Contain spread of communism in SE Asia • Disheartened/confused public • Defeat was unthinkable, victory seemed impossible

14. Era of Mass HE • Campus Reaction to Nation’s Activity • Interactions of Civil Rights Movement and anti war movement radicalized students • Lost faith • Rallies, protests, marches as expressions • Events • Sept. 1964, Univ. of CA-Berkeley (free speech • movement) • Students suspended: Mario Savio • Faculty-student strikes • Civil disobedience • Birth of the SDS (Students for a Democratic Society) • Birth of the Black Panther Party (Stokely Carmichael, Huey Newton, Black Pride) • Malcolm X, Martin Luther King Jr., Robert Kennedy, Watts, Vietnam Vietnam

15. Era of Mass HE • Events Cont. • April 1968: Columbia Univ.: Morningside Heights, Black students seized administration building • Northwestern, Cornell, San Francisco State – demands for Black Studies, Ethnic Studies programs, access for Black students • 1968: Democratic convention in Chicago Rejection of middle class values, war in the streets • Issues: local and national • War & draft; civil rights; investments in S. Africa; free speech; dorm visitation; in loco parentis; impersonal education-absent faculty; admissions of minorities; scholarships for minorities; recruitment of students by military/war industries; contracts between universities and defense contractors; ethnic studies programs; sex, drugs, & rock n roll; etc. • Student involvement • Not all campus or all students • Cohen 1% hard core radical; radicals (rebels) v collegiate

16. Era of Mass HE • Events Cont. • April 30, 1970- Nixon Announces invasion of Cambodia • Kent State Univ.-Saturday burn ROTC building, National Guard called out; May 4th (Monday)- Guard fires 60 shots, killing 4 injuring 1 • 10 days later at Jackson State University (HBCU/MS) 150 shots sprayed across the women’s dorm; 2 dead, 14 injured • Later same summer- bomb in defense related research center @ Univ. of Wisconsin, kills GA, 4 injured • Incidents: 1971 about 1,000; 1972 about 500, mid 70s none • Student interest turn from sit-ins to grades

17. Era of Mass HE • Institutional Responses to Students’ revolts • Punishment: In loco parentis, civil authorities arrest and mobilized nonradical students • Reaffirmation of policy/warnings of consequences (Univ. of Notre Dame), increased reaction • Persuasion strategies: Inappropriate activity, personal interaction • Immediate concession: Caused counter reaction, set stage for further protests • Open communications: Agree to consider, avoid using civil authorities • 1968 Commission on Civil Disorders • 1970 Commission on Campus Unrest • The Strawberry Statements: Notes of a Campus Revolutionary book & movie • Chronicle of 1960s demonstration at Columbia • a Columbia administrator, who deprecated student opinions about university administrative decisions as having no more importance than if the students had said they liked the taste of strawberries”