SOCIO - CULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF WORK AND BEHAVIOUR

1. SOCIO - CULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF WORK AND BEHAVIOUR Facilitator and Course Coordinator: Vinayshil Gautam PhD, FRAS(London) (Founder Director IIM K; Leader Consulting Team IIM S) A Al_Sager Chair Professor and First Head, Management Department, IIT D Chairman, DKIF

2. OVERVIEW • Socio-Cultural Dimensions • Motivation and Leadership • Motivation theories and their implications • Workplace Outcomes of Motivation theories

3. SOCIO-CULTURAL DIMENSIONS • ENVIRONMENT • INTERNAL • EXTERNAL • BEHAVIOUR • INDIVIDUAL • GROUP

4. Good potential in current job Parents never missed work Parents involve child in work projects Mother wins award at work Values and Beliefs ATTITUDES Strong positive work attitude Positive work experiences ENVIRONMENT SHAPES ATTIUDES Socializing with successful people

5. ATTITUDE SHAPES BEHAVIOR Values held as important Behavior Intentions to behave Attitudes about an object or a referent Beliefs about an object or a referent

6. IMPORTANCE FOR AN ORGANIZATION.. • Organization structures and processes give an incomplete description of how organization can be managed and developed • Human beings are the most important constituents of an organization • To understand why do people behave as they behave and how their behavior can be modified

7. To understand how Society and Environment influence the behavior of a person Human behavior can be altered and improved according to needs of an organization To understand how do external factors such as Leadership and Motivation help improve person’s efficiency

8. ROLE OF MOTIVATION & LEADERSHIP Motivation: Psychological processes that cause the arousal direction, and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal directed. Leadership: The task of ensuring that one's people remain committed to the goals set. The well-known saying aptly summarizes what a leader is: “The final test of a leader is that he leaves behind in others the conviction and the will to carry on.”

9. A JOB PERFORMANCE MODEL OF MOTIVATION Skills Individual Inputas Ability, Job knowledge Dispositions & Traits Emotions, Moods, &Affect Beliefs & Values Motivational Processes Motivated Behaviors Arousal Attention Intensity & & Direction Persistence Job Context Physical Environment Task Design Rewards & Reinforcement Supervisory Support &Coaching Social Norms Organizational Culture Enable, Limit

10. A JOB PERFORMANCE MODEL OF MOTIVATION (CONT.) Skills Individual Inputs Motivated Behaviors Focus: Direction, What we doIntensity: Effort, how hard we tryQuality: Task strategies, the way we do itDuration: Persistence, how long we stick to it Motivational Processes Performance Job Context Enable, Limit

11. ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN CREATING A SUSTAINED CULTURE • What does a leader do? • Leaders create and nurture the culture including the realignment of the changing components and also ensure the alignment of core culture issues with the values • How? • By personal example • By influencing behaviors and attitudes • By creating culture enhancing structures • By experimenting and being flexible

12. CONTENT BASED concentrates on underlying “NEEDS” that energize a person PROCESS BASED explores the internal reasons why a person responds in a particular manner REINFORCEMENT BASED Focuses on environmental events which determines a person’s behavior CLASSIFICATION OF MOTIVATION THEORIES

13. Motivational Theories • Content Based • Need theories • Maslow’s • ERG • McGregor’s • Hertzberg’s • McClelland’s • Process Based • Equity • Goal • Expectancy • Reinforcement • Based • Operant

14. MASLOW’S THEORY OF HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

15. MASLOW’S THEORY OF HIERARCHY OF NEEDS • Needs that are required to sustain life • Air • Water • Nourishment • Sleep PHYSIOLOGICAL OR SURVIVAL NEEDS

16. MASLOW’S THEORY OF HIERARCHY OF NEEDS • Once the physiological needs are met, people look for safety and security, in order to be free from physical and mental harm. • Living in a safe area • Medical insurance • Job security • Financial reserves SAFETY NEEDS PHYSIOLOGICAL OR SURVIVAL NEEDS

17. MASLOW’S THEORY OF HIERARCHY OF NEEDS • Once a person has met the lower level needs, higher level needs become important, the first of which are social needs. They include: • Need for friends • Need for belonging • Need to give and receive love SOCIAL NEEDS SAFETY NEEDS PHYSIOLOGICAL OR SURVIVAL NEEDS

18. MASLOW’S THEORY OF HIERARCHY OF NEEDS • Once a person feels sense of belonging, the need to feel important arises. Some of Esteem Needs are: • Self Respect • Achievement • Attention • Recognition ESTEEM NEEDS SOCIAL NEEDS SAFETY NEEDS PHYSIOLOGICAL OR SURVIVAL NEEDS

19. MASLOW’S THEORY OF HIERARCHY OF NEEDS • Self Actualization is the summit of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. It is the quest of reaching one’s full potential. Unlike other lower needs, this need is never fully satisfied. Certain such type of needs are: • Growth • Achievement • Advancement • Meaning Need for self actualization ESTEEM NEEDS SOCIAL NEEDS SAFETY NEEDS PHYSIOLOGICAL OR SURVIVAL NEEDS

20. MCGREGOR’S THEORY X AND THEORY Y

22. ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY Existence Growth Relatedness

23. SIMILARITIES TO MASLOW'S HIERARCHY • Studies had shown that the middle levels of Maslow's hierarchy have some overlap; Alderfer addressed this issue by reducing the number of levels to three. The ERG needs can be mapped to those of Maslow's theory as follows: • Existence: Physiological and Safety Needs • Relatedness: Social and External Esteem needs • Growth: Self – Actualization and internal esteem needs. • Like Maslow's model, the ERG theory is hierarchical - existence needs have priority over relatedness needs, which have priority over growth.

24. DIFFERENCES FROM MASLOW'S HIERARCHY • In addition to the reduction in the number of levels, the ERG theory differs from Maslow's in the following three ways: • Unlike Maslow's hierarchy, the ERG theory allows for different levels of needs to be pursued simultaneously. • The ERG theory allows the order of the needs be different for different people.

25. The ERG theory acknowledges that if a higher level need remains unfulfilled, the person may regress to lower level needs that appear easier to satisfy. This is known as the frustration-regression principle. Thus, while the ERG theory presents a model of progressive needs, the hierarchical aspect is not rigid. This flexibility allows the ERG theory to account for a wider range of observed behaviors. For example, it can explain the "starving artist" who may place growth needs above existence ones.

26. HERTZBERG’S HYGIENE FACTORS AND MOTIVATORS Two independent scales: • Satisfaction and No Satisfaction • These are the motivators • Dissatisfaction and No Dissatisfaction • Hygiene or maintenance factors

27. COMPARISON OF HYGIENE AND MOTIVATORS • Hygiene Factors • Company policies • Supervision • Work conditions • Salary • Relationship with peers • Status • Security • These factors contribute to job dissatisfaction. • Motivators • Recognition • Achievement • Work itself • Responsibility • Opportunity for advancement • Growth • These factors contribute to job satisfaction.

28. McCLELLAND THEORY • The need for Achievement: • is the drive to accomplish challenging goals. • The need for Power: • is the desire to control others; to influence others’ behavior according to one’s wishes. • The need for Affiliation: • is the desire for close relationships with others.

29. IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT People with different needs are motivated differently. High need for achievement– High achievers should be given challenging projects with reachable goals. They should be provided frequent feedback. While money is not an important motivator, it is an effective form of feedback. High need for affiliation– Employees with a high affiliation need perform best in a cooperative environment. High need for power– Management should provide power seekers the opportunity to manage others.

30. GOAL – SETTING THEORY • A goal is what a person tries to attain, accomplish, or achieve. • A specific goal that is understood and accepted by the individual, acts as an internal stimulus. • Specific goals produce a higher level of output than does the generalized goal of “do your best.” • In an organization, the organizational goals determine what an employee needs to do.

31. GOALS Goal: What an individual is trying to accomplish. Directing one’s attention Regulating one’s effort Task performance Goals motivate the individual by... Increasing one’s persistence Encouraging the development of goal- attainment strategies or action plans

32. INSIGHTS FROM GOAL-SETTING RESEARCH • Difficult Goals Lead to Higher Performance.- Easy goals produce low effort because the goal is too easy to achieve. - Impossible goals ultimately lead to lower performance because people begin to experience failure. • Specific Difficult Goals Lead to Better Performance - Goal specificity pertains to the quantifiability of a goal.- However, Specific difficult goals may impair performance on novel, complex tasks when employees do not have clear strategies for solving these types of problems. • Feedback Enhances The Effect of Specific, Difficult Goals. • - Goals and feedback should be used together.

33. INSIGHTS FROM GOAL-SETTING RESEARCH(CONTINUED) • Participative Goals, Assigned Goals, and Self-Set Goals Are Equally Effective.- Managers should set goals by using a contingency approach. Different methods work in different situations. • Goal Commitment and Monetary Incentives Affect Goal-Setting Outcomes.- Difficult goals lead to higher performance when employees are committed to their goals.

34. Difficult goals lead to lower performance when employees • are not committed to their goals.-Goal based incentives can lead to negative outcomes for employees in complex, interdependent jobs requiring cooperation. * Employees may not help each other. * Quality may suffer as employees pursue quantity • goals. * Commitment to difficult goals may suffer.

35. EQUITY THEORY OF MOTIVATION • How people strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges at their workplace – how it affects their behaviour • Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond so as to eliminate any inequities. • Equity theory recognizes that individuals are concerned not only with the absolute amount of reward for their efforts, but also with the relationship of this amount to what others receive.

36. NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE INEQUITY • An Equitable Situation- Comparison in which another person’s ratio of outcomes to inputs is equal to your outcome to input ratio- Example: Self = $2 = $2 per hour vs. Other = $4 = $2 per hour 1 hour 2 hours

37. Negative Inequity- Comparison in which another person receives greater outcomes for similar inputs- Example: Self = $2 = $2 per hour vs. Other = $3 = $3 per hour 1 hour 1 hour Positive Inequity- Comparison in which another person receives lesser outcomes for similar inputs- Example: Self = $3 = $3 per hour vs. Other = $2 = $2 per hour 1 hour 1 hour

39. EQUITY THEORY OF MOTIVATION • If an imbalance is perceived, what could be done? • Change the inputs. • Change the outcomes. • Look at another measurement. • Change one’s self-perception. • Choose to leave.

40. PRACTICAL LESSONS FROM EQUITY THEORY • Employee’s beliefs and attitudes affect job performance. • Managers should pay attention to employees’ perceptions of distributive, procedural, and interactional justice because they affect many different employee outcomes. • Managers benefit by allowing employees to participate in making decisions about important work outcomes. • Perceptions of fairness are increased by giving employees the opportunity to appeal decisions that affect them.

41. PRACTICAL LESSONS FROM EQUITY THEORY (CONTINUED) • Employees are more likely to accept change when they believe the organization is treating them fairly and equitably. • Managers can promote cooperation and teamwork among work group members by treating them equitably. • Treating employees inequitably can lead to litigation and costly court settlements. • A climate for justice is associated with positive employee outcomes.

42. EXPECTANCY THEORY • The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. The theory focuses on three relationships: • effort-performance relationship. • performance-reward relationship. • reward-personal goals relationship.

43. EXPECTANCYTHEORY • Effort-performance relationship: • the probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance. • Performance-reward relationship: • the degree to which the individual believes that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome. • Reward-personal goals relationship: • the degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual.

44. A GENERAL MODEL OF VROOM’S EXPECTANCY THEORY Outcome 1 High Effort Performance Goal Outcome 2 Expectancy “What are my chances of reaching my performance goal if I work hard?” Outcome 3 Instrumentality “What are my chances of getting various outcomes if I achieve my performance goal?” Valence “How much do I value these outcomes?” Decision to Exert Effort Expectancy “What are my chances of reaching my performance goal if I slack off?” Outcome 1 Low Effort Performance Goal Outcome 2 Outcome 3

45. MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS OF EXPECTANCY THEORY • Determine the outcomes, the employees value. • Identify good performance so appropriate behaviors can be rewarded • Make sure employees can achieve targeted performance levels.

46. Link desired outcomes to targeted levels of performance. Make sure changes in outcomes are large enough to motivate high effort. Monitor the reward system for inequities.

47. ORGANIZATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF EXPECTANCY THEORY • Reward people for desired performance, and do not keep pay decisions secret. • Design challenging jobs. • Tie some rewards to group accomplishments to build teamwork and encourage cooperation.

48. Reward managers for creating, monitoring, and maintaining expectancies, instrumentalities, and outcomes that lead to high effort and goal attainment. Monitor employee motivation through interviews or anonymous questionnaires. Accommodate individual differences by building flexibility into the motivation program.

49. REINFORCEMENT THEORY • In the reinforcement theory, a behaviorist approach argues that reinforcement conditions behavior. • Reinforcement theorists see behavior as being behaviorally caused. • Reinforcement theory ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solely on what happens to a person when he or she takes some action.

50. OPERANT REINFORCEMENT THEORY • Proposed by B.F. Skinner • Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment • When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond • A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response • Operant conditioning has been widely applied in clinical settings (i.e., behavior modification) as well as teaching (i.e., classroom management) and instructional development (e.g., programmed instruction).