Topic Nine:

1. Topic Nine: Strengthening research-extension-farmer linkages

2. The lack of a close working relationship between national agricultural research and extension organizations, and with different categories of farmers and farm organizations, is one of the most difficult institutional problems confronting ministries of agriculture in many developing nations. Research and extension organizations generally compete over the same scarce government resources and, frequently, leaders of these institutions do not see themselves as part of a broader system: the agricultural technology system (ATS). Instead, they try to increase the flow of resources coming to their respective institutions and to solve day-to-day management problems, rather than ensuring that their respective organizations contribute to the broader goal of getting improved agricultural technology to all major categories of farmers. In addition, the leadership and staff of many research and extension organizations do not appreciate the important roles that farmers and farmer organizations can play, both in disseminating technology and, through effective feedback mechanisms, in helping set priorities and improving programme relevance.

3. Agricultural technology: Some basic concepts At the most theoretical level, technology is the application of knowledge for practical purposes.Generally, technology is used to improve the human condition, the natural environment, or to carry out other - activities. Technology can be classified into two major categories: (1) material technology, where knowledge is embodied into a technological product such as tools, equipment, agrochemicals, improved plant varieties or hybrids, improved breeds of animals (e.g., semen from progeny-tested sires used for artificial insemination), and vaccines; and (2) knowledge-based technology such as the technical knowledge, management skills, and other processes that farmers need to successfully grow a crop or produce animal products. The transfer of material technology to farmers generally involves the production, distribution, and sale of seeds, implements, agrochemicals, and other production inputs. Therefore, the transfer process for material technology is generally simpler than training and disseminating technical knowledge and management skills to large numbers of poorly educated farmers who operate in different agro-ecological zones (i.e., the extension function). Also, the delivery systems needed for these different types of technologies are generally different. In most cases, the private sector is best suited to produce and distribute material technology.

4. most knowledge-based technologies such as improved crop or livestock management practices, integrated pest management (IPM), and soil and water management practices are generally taught through vocational training programs for rural young people or disseminated through a publicly funded extension system for adult farmers. At the same time, most material technology requires technical knowledge so that these products or tools can be used effectively. For example, to properly use an agrochemical in pest management, farmers need to know the proper application rates, the time and conditions for application, safety procedures, and so forth. In addition, if farmers use a sprayer (another type of material technology) to apply agrochemicals, then they need to know how to operate, adjust, calibrate, and clean the equipment to achieve the best results. Therefore, material and know-ledge-based technologies are generally closely intertwined.

5. Using systems analysis to identify linkage problems Systems analysis is an effective procedure to use in identifying linkage problems, since it is a problem-solving methodology. More specifically, it measures the linkages between the components, identifies the dominant and subordinate components, illustrates how to develop effective policies or programs, and discusses ways to improve the effectiveness of the system. Data required for the analysis were obtained from the questionnaire conducted Systems approach is useful for examining innovation systems because science is necessary but not sufficient for the generation, diffusion, and application of new technologies, and learning takes place everywhere in society (EC, 2000). However, decision makers and policy analysts demand more practical and applied frameworks to predict consequences of their decisions and/or actions. they should be able to identify the existing cause-effect pathways, detect leverage points and mismatches, and develop alternative scenarios to release the constraints on innovative performance of the system concerned. For example, in agricultural research, each disciplinary or commodity researcher (e.g., a plant breeder or agronomist) has relatively routine research methods that are commonly used in the process of developing specific technologies for a particular commodity (e.g., determining plant population, fertility, and other technical recommendations for a new cereal variety that has just been released for a particular AEZ.

6. On the theoretical front, the linkage measurement would allow to study dynamics of agricultural knowledge generation, diffusion, and application and hence the role of agriculture in economic development. And policy makers would greatly benefit from such information when designing policies or programs. Finally, knowledge of the sequencing of linkages would especially be valuable in constructing game theoretic models, as equilibrium in these models are conditional to a specific sequencing of decisions made by participating agents.

7. Mathematical model of system analysis Applications to date of the systems approach to analysis of organizational interactions remained at the conceptual level due mainly to the difficulty of formulating organizational objectives as optimization problems. In recent years, however, representation of systems as square matrices made it possible to bridge the gap between conceptual descriptions of systems and their quantitative characterizations. And the bridge was occupied with practitioners applying graph theoretical concepts, techniques, and results to study properties of systems. for example, utilized social network concepts to analyze underlying hierarchical properties of organizational structures, and in a similar fashion OECD (1997,1999) studied common patterns across innovation systems of the selected OECD countries.

8. Recent advancement of efficient computing algorithms and computational capacity of computers have spurred wide application of some concepts and techniques of graph theory in economics, political science, sociology, and psychology (Shrum, 1997; Richardson, 1999; OECD, 1997, 1999; Scott, 2000; among others). It has also become widely recognized that these techniques would serve as useful tools for characterizing hard and soft systems

9. The problem is how to integrate these individual research efforts and relate them to broader system objectives such as increasing the productivity of different groups of farmers throughout the country. To achieve these objectives, the ATS will need to develop and transfer a package of recommendations for all of the economically important commodities being produced within different farming systems in each AEZ. By using a systems approach, it is possible to examine each system component and linkage at different levels within an ATS. In the process, specific system constraints and weaknesses can be easily identified, and then the most appropriate intervention strategy can be determined.

10. First, a system is an organized set of functions and linkages that can be managed to achieve a specific goal or set of objectives. Therefore, systems analysis helps make key functions and linkages within an ATS or research-extension system explicit or transparent. This procedure allows these different functions and linkages to be assessed and brought under management control, particularly in light of their overall contribution to ATS objectives. In short, technology development and transfer activities in agriculture involve very complex, interdisciplinary processes and inter institutional relationships. Only by using systems analysis can managers begin to systematically analyze, manage, and monitor the various functions and linkages within their part of an ATS.

11. Second, what are the institutional components that typically make up an ATS? The major institutional components that are found within most national ATSs, including a representation of some linkages used to help integrate this macro-technology system. Research and extension are divided into their respective subunits and operate within the policy direction and support of the ministry of agriculture. In addition, the production and distribution of genetic technology, agrochemicals, and other types of material technology are regulated by the ministry of agriculture. farmers and their organizations provide feedback to research and extension and to input suppliers. Third, one dimension of systems analysis is the use of key indicators to measure the inputs, activities, and outputs from each subsystem and component within an overall ATS

12. Group discussion What is the Lesson on system analysis? How do we measure of linkage in system analysis ?

13. Fourth, flow diagrams are used within systems analysis to map or illustrate the relationship of key functions and linkages for different types of technology within a national ATS. • Therefore, through consultation with research and extension managers about key indicators and to develop a flow diagram for specific categories of technology, weak linkages or total gaps in the flow of technology can be easily identified and made transparent. • Once problems are identified, this same procedure can be used to simulate the effect of alternative mechanisms that might be used to bridge these gaps and to strengthen weak relationships. both a poorly and a well-linked research-extension system for developing and disseminating crop management technology and a poorly linked research and extension (R&E) system,

14. Technical recommendations that emerge from this collaborative process have the full confidence of researchers, extension personnel, and farmers, and have a much higher probability of being adopted once the extension field staff begins the widespread dissemination of this technology. The advantage of using flow diagrams to map and analyse key functions and linkages within an agricultural technology system (ATS) is that each part or level of the system can be broken down into its constituent subsystems, components, functions, and corresponding linkages. Therefore, the research or extension manager can provide (management) oversight and coordination for each set of functions or linkages - for each system level - all the way down to individual researchers and SMSs who are carrying out their own programme of work in developing, testing, and disseminating a package of recommendations for a particular commodity or farming system.

15. CTD… the structure of an organization should reflect and support the work functions and processes that need to be carried out at each system level as the organization seeks to carry out its respective goals and objectives, as well as those of the larger (technology) system. In practice, most managers think about structure first, rather than trying to modify or build the structure (and organizational resources) around the key functions to be accomplished. It is not unlike the process of building a house; the process begins with the priorities of the homeowner, including how different functions will be arranged, the level of resources to be allocated for each function, and the key relationships that must exist between the different activity centres within the house. If an architect does not consider function first, then he or she might end up with a building that does not meet the needs of the homeowner.

16. CTD… It is important to note that different types of crop or livestock technologies have both hardware and software components. For example, a new crop variety, as a type of material technology, cannot be fully exploited without having a complementary set of agronomic or crop management practices, including pest management. Likewise, improved breeds of livestock generally require higher levels of management, including improved nutrition, housing, and preventive health practices. Therefore, the functional relationship or linkages, both within and across different categories of technology, must be carefully examined in identifying constraints that limit the flow of technology within an ATS.

17. Ctd… There are two basic types of linkage mechanisms: organizational and managerial. Organizational mechanisms involve the structural modification of the research and/or extension organization or other organizations that are involved in an ATS. These modifications may range from the formal merger of research and extension at the broader system level, the merger of specific units within research or extension, or it could involve the creation of new positions, units, or permanent committees. In general, when reorganizing, be sure to combine those groups that are either dependent or that need to communicate with each other to get a job done. Also, put people together whose work might overlap to avoid duplication of activities. On the other hand, in some cases it might be appropriate to create a coordination position, such as a research-extension liaison officer or to explicitly assign coordination functions to a specific position or unit.

18. Ctd… Alternatively, permanent committees, with representation from two or more units that need to collaborate, can be created and charged with the responsibility of coordinating and facilitating the flow of technology and feedback through the ATS. In creating a permanent committee, there must be agreement among all participating organizations or units that (1) such a committee is essential and that it should meet on a regular basis, (2) its members are senior enough to implement decisions and recommendations, (3) the committee's mandate is limited to programme coordination, and (4) the committee's work is visible and supported by senior management .

19. Ctd… The other major type of linkage mechanisms involves a range of managerial interventions. For example, research and extension may agree to collaborate on joint planning and review activities, such as conducting RRA or PRA in different agro-ecological zones to assess the farming systems and technology needs of different groups of farmers. These activities would likely result in joint priority-setting and in planning joint programme activities

20. A second category of managerial linkages is when researchers and SMSs actually carry out collaborative programmeactivities together, such as on-farm trials and demonstrations, plus joint decision making on technical recommendations. In the process of carrying out these different programme activities, researchers and their extension counterparts share the responsibility for different tasks and regularly consult with each other on an informal basis. In short, through collaborative programme activities, research and extension personnel develop a positive professional relationship that is important, if not essential, in facilitating the flow of technology and feedback information within an ATS.

21. Other types of related managerial mechanisms include resource allocation procedures such as allocating time and financial resources for specific linkage activities. For example, an adaptive research or farming systems research team might be housed in a district or regional extension office so that they would have a closer working relationship with SMSs. Alternatively, SMSs might be assigned to a regional experiment station to work directly with one or more commodity research teams. Finally, various training and communications devices can be used to improve the flow of information and technology within an ATS. For example, a commodity research team and extension SMSs might collaborate on a joint farmer training activity; electronic mail is now being introduced in some countries to improve technical communications between research and extension personnel.

22. Linkages with farmers and their organizations Organizational mechanisms within an extension system to improve planning and feedback linkages with farmers and their organizations (both general farm organizations and commodity groups). In this example, farmers are formally represented on standing (permanent) extension advisory committees at the district, provincial, and national levels. In general, members on these advisory committees would be elected by farmers through their respective organizations, from the bottom up. For example, different farmer groups or associations within a district would be allocated one or more seats on the extension advisory committee; therefore, they would elect a representative to that committee for a two-or three-year term (depending on the committee's by-laws). This district advisory committee, in turn, would elect a chairperson and/or a representative who would serve on the provincial extension advisory committee (along with chairpersons or representatives from the other district advisory committees in the province), and so forth up to the national level. If advisory committee membership is selected by the research or extension director, then the value of these advisory committees will be severely compromised; members of these committees must represent farmer interests and concerns.

23. In the case of research, each provincial and/or national commodity research programme should have an advisory committee composed of farmer-elected representatives who give each commodity research director specific direction and feedback on programme problems and priorities specific to each commodity. In addition, regional research stations should have an advisory committee that reflects the geographic interests, problems, and concerns of farmers within the province or region. Finally, there should be crop, livestock, and/or a general research advisory panel organized at the provincial and/or national level to provide the opportunity for stakeholder input into research policies, priorities, and other concerns that cut across the research system. At these higher system levels, agribusiness representatives (input suppliers and processors) may join farmers in being represented on these research and extension advisory committees. In addition to these formal linkage mechanisms, both research and extension personnel would be expected to have regular, informal contacts with different groups of farmers in their respective service area.,

24. These linkages would occur through farmer participation in RRA or PRA activities (periodic needs assessment); also, they would occur while carrying out joint on-farm trials and demonstrations and during meetings and field days where farmers would have the opportunity to articulate different problems and concerns. The value of both formal and informal farmer feedback systems depends, in large part, on whether research and extension personnel, including senior management, are listening to what farmers and their representatives are saying. Too often, research and extension have become top-down, bureaucratic organizations that are not receptive or responsive to the needs of farmers. However, to become demand driven, research and extension organizations, directors, specialists and other research and extension personnel must be listening to what farmers are communicating through both informal and formal linkage mechanisms.