George Homans

1. George Homans (1910-1989) “If you look long enough for the secret of society you will find it in plain sight: The secret of society is that it was made by men, and there is nothing in society but what men put there”

2. Background Born to wealthy family in Boston on August 11, 1910 Eldest of four children Came from three generations of doctors Looked up to his father Robert, had mixed feelings about his mother George was healthy, but small and weak

3. Background Family had their own library, which George took advantage of Went to top private schools, then Harvard English major Did not study Sociology, but was introduced to the discipline by a close professor, Bernard DeVoto Became interested in Sociology by living in environment where people were highly conscious of social relations “Laws of sociology are the laws of snobbery”

4. Background Went to work for newspaper are graduation Paper failed due to Great Depression Being unemployed with nothing to do, he attended a seminar at Harvard Given by Lawrence Joseph Henderson Theories of Vilfredo Pareto Sociologist concerned with economic distribution All individuals will be made worse off with everyone being made worse off Was so impressed he co-wrote An Introduction to Pareto

5. Background Was appointed as a junior fellow in sociology at Harvard Brought him in contact with new works in industrial sociology Exposed to work of functional anthropologists Became an instructor of sociology until 1941 Left teaching to serve in the U.S. Navy to support the war Came back to teaching after four years Taught under Parsons Was critical of Parsons work and feud developed between them Thought Parsons found examples to fit his theories

6. Concepts Exchange Theory The study of sociology should explain individual behavior and interactions, not the large scale structures other sociologists were concerned with People will continue to engage in behaviors they find rewarding and cease behaviors that have too high of costs World consists of interacting persons exchanging rewards and punishments Problem for researchers is to weigh the value individuals place on specific rewards and costs

7. Concepts Exchange Theory Other contributors to the theory: Peter Blau Expanded Homan’s theory by extending it to more complex issues like, social structures, organizations, and bureaucracy Karen Cook Created her own version of social exchange theory Added to theory saying that we don’t always expect a reward for actions, but we expect others to help us in the future Introduced the idea of free riders

8. Concepts Rational Choice Theory Homans set out a basic framework of exchange theory Skinner was the inspiration behind Homan’s psychology Food is the basic goal sought by animals Animal behavior can be shaped by giving or withholding of food Food is the reward for animals Humans more likely to seek approval, love and money Rewards and punishments may differ, but the mechanisms involved are the same

9. Concepts Rational Choice Theory Rational choice theorists see social interaction as a process of social exchange Collective action Parsons- if actions are self-interested, how is social life possible? Homans would respond- If you get a sense of satisfaction from helping others, then giving help is an act of rational self-interest

10. Concepts Human Exchange Propositions Five Propositions 1. The success proposition: The principle of reward If past activity was rewarded, individual is more likely to repeat activity Shorter interval between behavior and reward, the more likely individual will repeat action The more often an action is rewarded, the more likely individual will repeat action 2. The stimulus proposition: The principle of experience If a similar stimulus presents itself and it resembles a previously rewarded activity, individual is likely to repeat their course of action 3. The value proposition: Reward and punishment, the principle of value of outcome The more valuable an activity that another gives, the more an individual will emit activity rewarded by the activity of the other If you like someone's company, you will engage in behavior that the other finds desirable

11. Concepts Human Exchange Propositions 4. The deprivation-satiation proposition: Principle of diminishing returns The more often a reward has recently been received, the less valuable further reward becomes If forced for a long time to go without a certain reward, individual will lose interest and move on 5. The aggression-approval proposition: Principle of distributive justice When behavior does not receive the expected reward, the response is anger Will find the aggression rewarding When individual receives greater reward than expected, or does not receive expected punishment, he/she will be pleased

12. Concepts Antifunctionalist The nature of social science Response to Parsons & structural-functionalism Explanation of behavior was only possible through the use of propositions Explanation by concept is not an explanation Confronted Durkheim’s structural functionalism on three main issues 1. Level of Emergence Homans believed all emergent social phenomena could be explained from psychological propositions 2. Durkheim’s View of Psychology During Durkheim’s day psychology was primitive 3. Durkheim’s Methods of Explanation Was concerned with the relationship between cause and effect

13. Concepts Groups Elements of the group system Activity- What group members do Interaction- Relation of the activity of one member of that group to that of another Sentiment- Feelings of group members with respect to the group Norms- Code of behavior adopted by group Feedback Relationship between internal and external group systems Internal system is subject to change as a result of fluctuations from the group members Collapse of a civilization can be explained by failure of a number of small groups to meet group’s needs Better chance of group survival if members fulfill their roles

14. Intellectual Influences Bernard DeVoto, Lawrence Henderson, and Elton Mayo Bernard DeVoto was a junior member of the teaching staff at Harvard who Homans came into close association. DeVoto was an instructor of English, and was Homans’ American Literature tutor. DeVoto introduced Homans to the great publisher, Alfred Knopf, and a professor named Lawrence Joseph Henderson and his assistant Elton Mayo, who introduced Homans to Sociology

15. Intellectual Influences Anthropology Mayo instructed Homans, as with the rest of his students, to read books by prominent social anthropologists, because at this time the cultural anthropologists were intellectually dominant. The concept of reciprocity became a critical element in Homans’ exchange theory. The concept of exchange itself was influenced by Malinowski’s discussion of “The Gift”. Anthropologists and exchange theorists argue that a crucial aspect of gift exchanges bind society together through mutual obligations.

16. Intellectual Influences B.F. Skinner & Psychological Behaviorism Homans treated the social exchange between Skinner and his pigeons as the paradigm of all social exchange. In formulating his version of exchange theory, Homans turned to the behavioral school of experimental psychology founded by his friend Skinner. Homans’s sociology is an attempt to build a theory about social life from the basic behavioristic propositions derived from Skinner’s psychology of operant conditioning

17. Intellectual Influences Economics and Utilitarianism Rational choice theorists, such as those found in the exchange theory paradigm, have adopted 4 basic economic propositions: Individuals are rational profit maximizers. The more of something an individual has, the less interested they will be in more of it. The prices at which goods and services will be sold in a free market are determined directly by the tastes of prospective buyers and sellers Goods will generally be more expensive if they are supplied by a monopolist than if they are supplied by a number of firms in competitions with each other Utilitarians argued that behavior was more or less a moral activity according to the amount of utility it bestowed on individuals.

18. Intellectual Influences Georg Simmel Simmel was one of the first early major social theorists who attempted to identify universal characteristics of human behavior. In 1958, Homans wrote an article for a special issue of the American Journal of Sociology in honor of Simmel. Homans urged small-group researchers to integrate laboratory experiments with quantified field work, and to reduce the propositions established to those of psychological explanations.

19. Relevancy Homans is, of course, best known for “creating” exchange theory. But nowhere in his descriptions of propositions does he use the term “exchange.” Exchange theory combines the principles of psychological behaviorism, basic economics and utilitarianism, with a focus on interactions between humans. Homans proposed a number of propositions that he believed could explain any, or all, human behaviors. To demonstrate the relevance of these propositions to today’s world is nearly pointless, as any behavior that one can think of can be easily be answered by one or more of his propositions.

20. Relevancy Homans wrote extensively on the group system and the group structure. His ideas have maintained their relevancy because of the reality of the large number of small group interactions that humans engage in. The formation of a group involves the development of integrative bonds that unite individuals in a cohesive unit 1. impressing others 2. social approval 3. attractiveness 4. love Homans’ brilliant works and contributions to social theory are only at the early stages of recognition. His insights of human behavior will continue to inspire social thought well into the third millennium.

21. Philosophy Realism vs. Idealism Realist – Society is created by man, which indicates that reality itself was made by man. One reality is accepted by everyone, and the job of the scientist is to figure out why people act the way they do in this reality/society. Realism vs. Nominalism Nominalist – Believes that everything was made by man, so everything is a social construct of man.

22. Philosophy Idealism vs. Materialism Materialist – believes that everything in society was put there by man