SWK 101 Introduction to Social Work and Social Services in Singapore

1. Page 1 MENU SWK 101Introduction to Social Workand Social Services in Singapore Study Unit I, Chapter 3, Topic 1: Theories in Social Work

2. Introduction Page 2 Social theory is a broad area, comprising many discourses about society, humans and human social action, touching on most philosophical issues. There are hundreds of different social theories. This module will focus on the Bio-medical Model, General Systems Theory, the ecological perspective, person-in-environment, Bio-psychosocial Model and the strength perspective which are all central in helping us understand human relationships with the environment.

3. Introduction According to the International Federation of Social Workers: • Social work bases its methodology on a systematic body of evidence-based knowledge derived from research and practice evaluation, including local and indigenous knowledge specific to its context. • It recognises the complexity of interactions between human beings and their environment, and the capacity of people both to be affected by and to alter the multiple influences upon them including bio-psychosocial factors. • The social work profession draws on theories of human development and behaviour and social systems to analyse complex situations and to facilitate individual, organisational, social and cultural changes. Source: http://www.ifsw.org/en/p38000208.html

4. Bibliography Bertalanffy, L. von (1968). General Systems Theory. New York: George Braziller. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Engel GL: From biomedical to biopsychosocial: being scientific in the human domain. Psychosomatics 1997; 38:521–528 Germain, C. B. (1979). Introduction: Ecology and social work. In C. B. Germain (Ed.). Social work practice, people and environments: An ecological perspective (3-22). New York: Columbia University Press. Richardson, G. P. (1991). Feedback thought in social science and systems theory. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. Saleebey, D, ed. (1992) The Strengths Perspective in Social Work Practice. New York: Longman. Shah, P & Mountain, D. (2007)The medical model is dead - long live the medical model. British Journal of Psychiatry, 191, 375-377 Weick, A. (1981). "Reframing the Person-in-Environment Perspective." Social Work 26: 140-143.

5. Importance in Understanding Social Work Theories Page 5

6. The Bio-Medical Model Problematic as as it reduces complex social and interpersonal issues to a matter of individual failing and dysfunction. Provides a humane approach to treating people with emotional or behavioural problems as prior to that, these people were thought to be demon-possessed, viewed as mad, blamed for their disturbance and often beaten or locked up. PROS CONS

7. General Systems Theory In the 1960s, social work began questioning the usefulness of the medical model. Environmental factors were shown to be as important as internal factors in causing a client’s problems. Social work then shifted some of its emphasis to a reform approach which seeks to change systems to benefit clients (healthy start and special education are examples of efforts to change the system to benefit clients). Since the 1960s, social work primarily used a systems approach in assessing human behaviour when working with the individual, groups, families, organisations and communities. The system perspective emphasizes the importance to look beyond the client’s present problems to assess the complexities and interrelationships of the client’s life situation.

8. General Systems Theory Page 8 Developed by biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy in 1936. General Systems Theory is an inter-disciplinary field of science and the study of the nature of complex systems in nature, society and science. More specifically, it is a framework by which one can analyse and/or describe any group of objects that work in concert to produce some result. Von Bertalanffy (1968, p. 33) points out, "there are many instances where identical principles were discovered several times because the workers in one field were unaware that the theoretical structure required was already well developed in some other field. General systems theory will go a long way towards avoiding such unnecessary duplication of labour.” Systems are a set of “objects” and the achieved by the relationships between these objects and their attributes.

9. General Systems Theory Key concepts of the General Systems Theory are wholeness, relationship and homeostasis. Wholeness means that the object or element within a system produces an entity that is greater than the additive sum of its separate parts. Hence, it is important to understand the system in its entirety, rather than break them down into its separate part. Hence, we should not seek to understand the object (person) alone, without considering his or her interaction and relationship with the environment. Relationship asserts that there is a pattern or structure in the interaction of the different elements within a system. Hence, social workers should focus on helping different elements (eg: husband and wife) change their interaction and communication pattern to improve the relationship, rather than focusing on the psychological make-up of any individual. Homeostasis suggests that most living systems seek a balance to maintain and preserve the system. For example, families tend to establish behavioural patterns that they are familiar with and resist change. Emergence of an imbalance (eg: crisis) may bring the family interaction to another equilibrium.

10. General Systems Theory Basic Principles of General Systems Theory • The whole is greater than the sum of its parts. • All systems are made up of subsystems. • All parts of the systems are interconnected. • All systems have boundaries. • The systems must be understood as a whole. •  All systems seek stability and balance. • The systems and their environments affect each other through feedback (input and output). • A change in any part of the system affects all other parts. • Systems are heuristic, offering a way of looking at phenomenon but are not real objects.

11. Page 11 General Systems Theory • Systems theory provides the social worker an internally consistent framework for classifying and evaluating the world. It provides a scholarly method of evaluating a situation and an universal approach to all sciences. • Systems theory offers a way to conceptualise the relationship between people and environments and encourages a balanced approach to both domains of practice. Emphasis is on the ‘goodness of fit’ between the client and their environments. • Because systems are in dynamic interchange, a change in one part of the system will create problems in other parts of the system because of a misfit between individuals and the systems of which they are a part of. Hence, the role of the social worker is to enhance the fit between the individual and the systems affecting them. • Workers can focus on how family, community, social, economic and political factors interact and affect the client’s situation.

12. THE ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE • In recent years, social work has increasingly focused on using an ecological perspective. This approach integrates both treatment and reform by conceptualising and emphasising the dysfunctional transactions between people and their physical environment. "The ecological perspective uses ecological concepts from biology as a metaphor with which to describe the reprocity between persons and their environments ... attention is on the goodness of fit between an individual or group and the places in which they live out their lives"(Sands, 2001). • Human beings are viewed as developing and adapting through transactions with other elements in their environment. An ecological model explores both their internal and external factors. • Ecological theories focus on inter-relational transactions between systems, and stress that all existing elements within an ecosystem play an equal role in maintaining balance of the whole.

13. THE ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE Page 13 • It views people not as passive reactors to their environment but rather dynamic and reciprocal interactors with their environment. • An ecological model tries to improve coping patterns so that a better match can be attained between the individual’s needs and the characteristics of their environment. • In social work practice, applying an ecological approach can be best understood by looking at persons, families, cultures, communities and policies, and identify and intervene upon strengths and weaknesses in the transactional processes between these systems. • Holistic thinking can provide a paradigm for understanding how systems and their interactions can maintain an individual's behaviour.

14. THE ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE Bronfenbrenner (1979) suggests four levels of ecological components as a useful framework in understanding how individual or family processes are influenced by the hierarchical environmental systems in which they function. The four systems are: • Microsystem: The most basic system, referring to an individual's most immediate environment (i.e., the effects of personality characteristics on other family members). • Mesosystem: A more generalised system referring to the interactional processes between multiple microsystems. A system comprises of connections between immediate environments (i.e., effect of spousal relationship upon parent-child relationship). • Exosystem:Settings on a more generalised level which affect family interactions indirectly on the micro and meso levels (i.e. the effects of parent's employment on family interactions). • Macrosystem: The most generalised forces, affecting individual and family functions (i.e., political, cultural, economic, social). A fifth system was later added: • Chronosystem: The patterning of environmental events and transitions over the course of life. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

15. THE ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE • Exosystem • Mesosystem • Microsystem • SELF Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. • Chronosystem • Macrosystem

16. THE ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE Legal system Economic system Religion Interaction between work & home Family, friends Social system Self Political system National security Education system Interaction between work & son’s childcare Changes over time Leisure Media

17. Person in Environment Page 17 One emphasis from the ecological perspective is the “person-in-environment”. The concept of “person-in-situation” or “person-in-environment” stemmed from the beginning of social work and its dual focus on both individual assistance and social reform. Term is coined by Florence Hollis in 1964 to describe the three-fold interaction of the person, situation and the interaction between them. Persons and social systems were both seen as significant in problem solving. As such, social work needed to intervene in both the personality and environment to help the person find a fit with the environment. “On an ecological view, social work practice is directed at improving the transaction between people and environment in order to enhance the adaptive capabilities and improve the environment for those who function within them.” Germain (1979)

18. Person in Environment Using the person-in-environment framework, social work can focus on three separate areas: • First, it can focus on the person and seek to develop his problem-solving, coping and developmental capabilities. • Second, it can focus on the relationship between the person and the systems he or she is interacting with and link the person to needed services, resources and opportunities. • Finally, it can focus on the environment and seek to reform and change them to meet the needs of the individual more effectively.

19. Person in Environment Page 19 Example 1: A child with special needs in a mainstream school will find difficulties coping. The social worker in understanding the problem will advocate and spearhead a new service or the development of a special school which better caters to the learning needs of the child. Here, the problem does not lie with the child or the school. The intervention is not towards making any changes to either of these components. Social work should focus on development of new services which may better meet the needs of the child.

20. Person in Environment Page 20 Example 2 Ali was deemed a problematic student who does not pay attention in class. He got into frequent fights and had problems with discipline. He did very poorly in school and the school had threatened to expel Ali if he did not change. Social workers may intervene in the “person” realm by providing counseling and working on Ali’s behaviour, values and beliefs. They can help Ali to understand the importance of education, the implication of his behavior, and how he can embark on more positive behaviour. A social worker may also intervene in the “environment” realm such as the family, after understanding that Ali’s behaviour problems had stemmed from his anger towards his parent’s marital problems. The social worker may provide family counseling and mediation to work on their interaction at home. Alternatively, the social worker may also work with the school environment to help them appreciate the reason why Ali may be acting out in school, by helping the school to focus on Ali’s strength and recommending strategies on how the school may better relate to Ali.

21. BIO-PSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL Page 21 The bio-psychosocial model was theorised by psychiatrist George L. Engel(1977) who rejected the biomedical model. He criticised the medical community for its acceptance of the biomedical model as dogma, and for failing to acknowledge its weaknesses and limitations. Engel implored the world to accept that “the boundaries between health and disease, between well and sick, are diffused by cultural, social and psychological considerations. The bio-psychosocial model posits that the following play a significant role in human functioning in the context of understanding a problem or illness: • Biologicalfactors (illness, physical functioning, medication) • Psychological factors (which entails thoughts, emotions, and behaviours) • Social factors (family, social support, job and interaction with environment) This is in contrast to the traditional reductionism biomedical model of medicine that suggests every disease process can be explained in terms of an underlying deviation from normal function.

22. BIO-PSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL Page 22 The bio-psychosocial model is a comprehensive, integrative and elegant model that allows us to address all major areas of the issue across three spheres: Physical, psychological and socio-cultural. It allows and encourages social workers to holistically examine the interactive and reciprocal effects of environment, genetics and behaviour. A social worker using the bio-psychosocial model considers not only the biological impact of the illness but also the psychological and social components which affect the person. It is a commonly used model among medical social workers to consider the impact of an illness upon their biological, psychological and social well-being. Some social workers have recently added and emphasised a spiritual dimension to the bio-psychosocial framework in their work with their clients.

23. THE STRENGTH PERSPECTIVE • For most of the past decades, social work and other helping professions have had a primary focus on problem, pathology, deficit, shortcoming and dysfunction of the client. • Such an emphasis on problem is biased and skewed as every individual possesses strength and resources to help him or her to cope and deal with situations. Unfortunately, these strengths and resources are not being acknowledged or emphasised in working with the clients. • Using a strength’s perspective, social workers include clients’ strengths into the assessment process. Likewise, social workers focuses on clients’ strengths rather than their weaknesses when working with clients to help them resolve their difficulties. The social workers must first identify these strengths before they can utilise the client’s strength effectively. • Focusing on weakness often impairs a worker’s ability to identify strength and growth potential in the client. Focusing on the clients’ strengths helps to enhance their self esteem. • The strength perspective emphasises people’s abilities, values, interest, beliefs, resources, accomplishments and aspirations. • The strength perspective is closely related to the concept of “empowerment” which is central to social work. It is useful across the life cycle and throughout the assessment, intervention and evaluation stage of the helping process.

24. THE STRENGTH PERSPECTIVE According to Dennis Saleebey (1997), five principles guide the development of the strength perspective. • Every individual, group, family and community has strength. The strength perspective is to identify these strengths and resources. • Trauma and abuse, illnesses and struggles may be injurious, but may also be sources of challenges and opportunities. Hence, we can help clients to focus on their growth and opportunities in such events. • Assume what you do not know as the upper limits of the capacity to grow and change and take the individual, group, and community aspiration seriously. This principle means workers need to hold high the expectations of their clients and form alliance with their visions, hopes and values. • We best serve our clients by collaborating with them. A helper is more effective as a collaborator than being an expert or professional. • Every environment is full of resources. The strength perspective seeks to identify these resources to make them available to benefit their clients.

25. Summary and Conclusion Different sets of theories and paradigms had an impact in guiding social workers in their work with their clients. These theories provide a set of lens through which we view problems and our clients which, in turn, affect how we relate to them. It also guides social workers on the important aspects to focus on in their work with their clients. In this learning unit, we had learnt about some of the major theories which were central to social work practice. Many of these theories had stood the test of time and had an inffluence upon social work practice. These theories include the Bio-medical Model, the General Systems Theory, the ecological perspective, persons-in-environment framework, Bio-psychosocial Model and the strength perspective. New theories may continue to be developed through the years to explain different social phenomenon and shape social work practice. Social workers need to closely examine the premise of new Social Work Theories and its relevance to practice rather than adopting them in a wholesale manner as they emerge. Page 25

26. Mini Quiz – Question 1 Howe identified five areas in which theoretical perspective guides and influences practice. Match the five different areas to the respective definitions. It tells us what to see and what to look out for. It provides a conceptual vocabulary and framework within which observations can be arranged and organised. It suggests how different observations might be linked and connected; it offers possible causal relationships between one event and another. It indicates what might happen next. It suggests things to do to bring about change. • Observation • Intervention • Description • Prediction • Explanation

27. Mini Quiz – Question 2 The effects of personality characteristics on other family members Effect of spousal relationship upon parent-child relationship Events and transitions over the course of life The effects of parent's employment on family interactions Political, cultural, economic, social forces According to Bronfenbrenner’s levels of ecological components, match the various levels of systems to the corresponding examples. • Microsystem • Chronosystem • Macrosystem • Mesosystem • Exosystem Page 27

28. Mini Quiz Which of the following statements describe the General Systems Theory? The whole is greater than the sum of its parts. All parts of the systems are interconnected. There are no boundaries between different systems. The systems must be understood as a whole. All systems seek change and evolution. The systems and their environments affect each other through feedback (input and output). Change in any part of the system can occur independently to other parts. Page 28

29. Reflections • What are the benefits and challenges of integrating theories into social work practice? 2. Which of the theories discussed in this learning unit do you see as more useful in working with clients? Why? 3. How do we integrate the theories discussed in this learning unit into our social work practice with our clients? Page 29