Sociology Terms

1. Sociology Terms Unit 1

2. Chapter One An Invitation to Sociology

3. perspective Perspective is one’s point of view. One’s perspective is not typically shared by others. Your child is better looking than another person might believe, certainly share out loud. Typically, when we are confronted by something that challenges our perspective, that can be a tough experience because it is challenging how we see and interpret things. Important days don’t look like anything special when they start. Invariably, the sun rises and people wake up. Coffee is swilled and eggs are swallowed. Everybody goes about the business of acting like their lives matter and then, no matter how important the events of the day end up being, the sun invariably sets. The sun rose before the soldiers stormed Omaha Beach on D-Day, and the sun set after Archduke Franz Ferdinand was killed. Sunrises and sunsets are real jerks about putting things in perspective. Josh Lieb, I Am a Genius of Unspeakable Evil and I Want to be Your Class President, 2009

4. sociology Sociology is the science of people’s behavior and how they interact with one another within relationships. It emerged in the late 19th-century with the works of scientists such as Emile Durkheim, Max Weber and August Comte. It developed into a scientific endeavor that used observation, interviews, statistical analysis, experimentation and other methods to study people, social structures and social change.

5. sociological perspective Sociological perspective is a way in which the behavior of groups, as opposed to people. The individual and their actions are typically the purview of psychologists while the sociologist focuses on the actions of the group. A sociologist might study an individual but only to gain a greater understanding of the group.

6. social sciences The social sciences are a collection of sciences that revolves around human society. While they differ in some ways, there are overlapping components that bind the various sub-sciences. Along with sociology, these sciences include: Anthropology – examines culture but typically focuses on un-developed cultures Psychology – examines mental and emotional states, typically focusing on the individual rather than the group Economics – examines the economic choices people make Political science – examines government and how people interact with government History – examines past events of human societies

7. social structure Social structure is the patterned way in which people interact with one another, the relationships that govern that behavior. As a group, a classroom of students do certain things that is common throughout most classrooms around the world. As a group, teachers will conduct themselves and interact with the students in a way that is generally found throughout the world. While students might approach their studies in a variety of ways and while teachers might do their job in a variety of ways, the taking of notes, the taking of tests (for the teacher, the giving of notes and the giver of tests) are part of a group behavior upon which sociologists focus. In short, the behavior of a group cannot be determined by the characteristics of the individuals within the group.

8. sociological imagination Pioneered by American sociologist C. Wright Mills, sociological imagination refers to the ability of individuals to observe the relationship between events in their personal life and events that occur within society. This is most typified by the social pressures that can influence the actions of an individual. Yet, understanding the bigger picture can also allow individuals to question common interpretations or conventional wisdom.

9. Auguste Comte Biography: Born 19 January 1798 in Montpellier, France Died 5 September 1857 in Paris, France Seminal works: Course of Positive Philosophy (1830-42) The Positive Political System (1851-4) Influential ideas: Considered the father of sociology, Comte set out to create a way that society could be studied and that results from the research and observation could be “sure” or “positive.” He also sought to define that which could be derived from social stability (social statics) and that which creates social change (social dynamics). A general statement of any system of philosophy may be either a sketch of a doctrine to be established, or a summary of a doctrine already established. If greater value belongs to the last, the first is still important, as characterizing from its origin the subject to be treated. In a case like the present, where the proposed study is vast and hitherto indeterminate, it is especially important that the field of research should be marked out with all possible accuracy. . . . Auguste Comte, Course of Positive Philosophy, 1830

10. positivism Positivism, first proposed by French sociologist Auguste Comte, was the belief that sociological knowledge should be achieved through scientific observation in order that the knowledge would be sure or positive.

11. social statics Social statics, as proposed by French sociologist Auguste Comte, is the study of social stability and order.

12. social dynamics Social dynamics, as proposed by French sociologist Auguste Comte, is the study of social change.

13. Harriet Martineau Biography: Born 12 June 1802 in Norwich, Norfolk, England Died 27 June 1876 in Ambleside, Westmoreland, England Seminal works: The History of the Thirty Years’ Peace The Positive Philosophy of AugusteComte Deerbrook Influential ideas: Martineau’s talent spanned history, economics, literature and sociology. Her greatest sociological contribution was the translation of Comte’s work into English. Furthermore, she was one of the first to connect the institution of slavery with the treatment of women during her time. If a test of civilization be sought, none can be so sure as the condition of that half of society over which the other half has power. Harriet Martineau

14. Herbert Spencer Biography: Born 27 April 1820 in Derby, Derbyshire, England Died 8 December 1903 in Brighton, Sussex, England Seminal works: System of Synthetic Philosophy (1855-96) Influential ideas: An inventor as well as writer, Spencer compared society to the human body, suggesting that the different parts of society work towards, ideally, a greater good. He is best known for his idea of Social Darwinism, suggesting that if society is left alone and not “reformed,” it will correct itself as nature tends to do. Those things that should remain will; things that should die off will. Man needed one more constitution to fit him for his original state; he needs another to fit him for his present state; and he has been, is, and will long continue to be, in process of adaption…Progress, therefore, is not an accident, but a necessity. Herbert Spencer, Social Statics (1851)

15. Karl Marx Biography: Born 5 May 1818 in Trier, Prussia (Germany) Died 14 March 1883 in London, England Seminal works: The Communist Manifesto (1848) The Capital (1867-94) Influential ideas: The German philosopher will go down in history primarily for his works regarding communism. He felt the current economic trends, namely capitalism, would ultimately lead to social disorder and chaos as the working class (proletariat) would rise up against the owners (bourgeoisie). The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. Karl Marx, The Communist Manifesto, (1848)

16. bourgeoisie German philosopher Karl Marx defined the bourgeoisie as those who owned the factors of production (the resources, the land, the factories, etc.). Those who owned these factors, also called capital, were referred to by Marx as capitalists, a group of self-interested money men who gave their workers, known as the proletariat, only enough salary to survive.

17. capitalist A capitalist, as defined by German philosopher Karl Marx, is one who owns the factors of production or capital. In laymen’s terms, these are the business and company owners who control the means to become wealthy.

18. proletariat According to German philosopher Karl Marx, the proletariat were those of the working class who toil for the bourgeoisie and earn very little of the profit of the goods they make.

19. class conflict As proposed by German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, class conflict was the natural conclusion of the disparity between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The only way to prevent the class warfare that a capitalist system can create was to move towards a classless society, a communist society where no one owns the land and that profit is shared equally among all those who work. Marx went further to explain that planned revolution could speed up the change from capitalism to communism (he used the term socialism).

20. ÉmileDurkeim Biography: Born 15 April 1858 in Épinal, France Died 15 November 1917 in Paris, France Seminal works: The Division of Labor in Society (1893) Suicide (1897) Influential ideas: Durkheim spent his life persuading people to take sociology seriously, refining early ideas. He felt society was the product of societal consensus. Durkheim was also a leader in formalizing the scientific approach of sociology in order to gain respectability and prestige. He also felt human social behavior was the product of social factors rather psychological ones. It is society which, fashioning us in its image, fills us with religious, political and more beliefs that control our actions. Émile Durkheim, Suicide, 1897

21. mechanical solidarity According to ÉmileDurkeim, mechanical solidarity was social dependency based on a society-wide consensus of values and beliefs, enforced conformity and dependency on family and tradition. Many tradition-laden countries such as Japan and China often display this type of mechanical solidarity.

22. organic solidarity As proposed by French sociologist ÉmileDurkeim, organic solidarity is social interdependency based on high levels of specialization of societal roles. This organic solidarity is seen in the fact that the average person, disinterested in and/or incapable of making bread, depend on the one who wants to be a baker to obtain their bread.

23. Max Weber Biography: Born 21 April 1864 in Erfurt, Prussia (Germany) Died 14 June 1920 in Munich, Germany Seminal works: The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1904-5) Economy and Society (1922-5) Influential ideas: Like many learned men of his age, Weber wroteon a litany of things, including religion, social classes and bureaucracies. Weber’s methods and theories probably have the greatest impact on modern sociology. His ideas of getting into the minds of people and the role of rationality in modern thinking irrevocably changed the science. The fate of our times is characterized by rationalization and intellectualism and, above all, by the disenchantment of the world. Max Weber, WissenschaftalsBeruf, 1918

24. verstehen Verstehen is the German verb “to understand.” From this word, German sociologist Max Weber suggested that people make decisions based on their own understanding of a situation. Therefore, if a sociologist wants to know about people within a group, they must place themselves within that person’s mindset.

25. rationalization As proposed by German sociologist Max Weber, rationalization is a mind-set that relies on knowledge, reason and planning – the result of educational changes in the face of industrialization. For example, prior to industrialization, farming was an endeavor that seemed to depend on luck (or at least the farmer’s perception of luck). Afterwards, the use of science to understand when things grow and why changed the agricultural industry.

26. W.E.B DuBois Biography: Born 23 February 1868 in Great Barrington, Mass. Died 27 August 1963 in Accra, Ghana Seminal works: The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study (1899) The Souls of Black Folk (1903) Influential ideas: The bulk of DuBois’ work centered on the racism suffered by American blacks and the segregation that so define the social world of the same. His personal experience, however, was unique in that he went to an integrated high school in Massachusetts and became the first black man to receive a degree from Harvard University. The theory of democratic government is not that the will of the people is always right, but rather that normal human beings of average intelligence will, if given a chance, learn the right and best course by bitter experience. W.E.B. Du Bois, The Negro, 1915

27. Jane Addams Biography: Born 6 September 1860 in Cedarville, Illinois Died 21 May 1935 in Chicago, Illinois Seminal works: Twenty Years at Hull-House (1910) The Long Road of Woman’s Memory (1916) Influential ideas: While the author of several books, Jane Addams is best known for her settlement houses, primarily in Chicago, that were designed to provide services to lower-income and immigrant people, particularly women. She devoted her life to helping the poor and ultimately, won the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1931. She worked with sociologists from the University of Chicago so that they may see the impact of industrialization on the masses. ….life cannot be administered by definite rules and regulations; that wisdom to deal with a man’s difficulties comes only through some knowledge of his life and habits as a whole… Jane Addams, Twenty Years at Hull-House (1910)

28. theoretical perspective A theoretical perspective is a set of assumptions about a particular thing, accepted as true. Jane Addams often struggled against the assumptions that those that were poor in the 19th-century was the product of their own failings. A theoretical perspective can also color how we view nationalities or the world around us. There is a map that shows the northern and southern hemispheres in reverse so that Australia, southern South America and Africa as well as Antarctica are at the top of the map and North America, Europe and Russia are located at the bottom. Each challenges peoples’ theoretical perspective.

29. functionalism Sociology operates under three general theoretical perspectives. The first of these three is functionalism. Functionalism emphasizes the contributions of each part of society. Religion allows society to answer questions that are not easily verifiable. Family serves to replenish societal members and provides a safety net and caring network for those new members. To a functionalist, few changes can alter the core roles that each part of society fills. The student protestors of the 1960s and 1970s are now a part of society they once rebuked.

30. manifest functions American sociologist Robert Merton suggested that there were two types of functionalism. Manifest functions refer to intended and recognized consequences of an aspect of society. A manifest function of school is to teach history and math. A manifest function of church is to reaffirm the faith associated with a particular religion.

31. latent functions American sociologist Robert Merton suggested that there were two types of functionalism– manifest and latent functions. Latent functions represent unintended and unrecognized consequences of an aspect of society. A latent function of school includes the development of close friendships.

32. dysfunction A result of functionalism may not always be a positive one. Dysfunction refers to a negative consequence of an aspect of society. While the role of religion can provide comfort and a feeling of belonging for many people, there are examples of people, upon long-term exposure to a church, synagogue or mosque, walk away from their religion or religion altogether. Additionally, government bureaucracy was created to facilitate the interaction between people and their government. However, bureaucracy is today characterized as impersonal and rigid and ultimately, not very responsive at all.

33. conflict perspective Sociology operates under three general theoretical perspectives. The second of these three is conflict perspective, which refers to an approach that emphasizes the role of conflict, competition and constraint on society. While functionalism suggests that society craves stability or often resets itself towards stability and predictability, the conflict perspective suggests society engenders conflict, which brings about change that includes constraint or coercion of certain members of society.

34. power An element of conflict perspective, power is the ability that one person has to control the behavior of another. The beginnings of the women’s movement was an attempt by the powerless to exert influence on the powerful. As time has past, women have gained greater power and access at the expense of men. The follower of conflict perspective would suggest that the change has created more power for women.

35. symbolic interactionism Sociology operates under three general theoretical perspectives. The third of these three is symbolic interactionism, which is an approach that focuses on the interactions of people based on mutually understood symbols. According to American sociologist Herbert Blumer, there are three stages to this approach: one, we learn the meaning of symbols, second, we base our behavior on our understanding of symbols and three, we predict how others will react to our behavior.

36. symbol A symbol, as it is defined as a part of symbolic interactionism, is anything that stands for something else to which everyone agrees. A whistle might show appreciation in the United States but it also shows displeasure in South America.

37. dramaturgy Canadian sociologist Erving Goffmansuggested that dramaturgy, as a part of symbolic interactionism, is an approach that highlights human interaction as theatrical performance or pretending to be something someone is not. A teacher who is low-key and reserved might take on the persona of a loud and boisterous person to come across better in the classroom. In order to be accepted by their peers, a teenager might take on an appreciation of a certain style of dress or partake in alcohol or tobacco.

38. Chapter Two Sociologists Doing Research

39. survey A survey is a research method in which people respond to questions. This survey can be oral or written.

40. population A survey’s population refers to a group of people with certain specified characteristics. Depending on the survey, its population could be anything from Canadian teenagers between the ages of 16-18, American seniors over the age of 65 or adults between the ages of 25-40 suffering from leukemia.

41. sample A survey’s sample refers to a group of people that represents a larger population. It is a sub-group of the survey’s population and chosen carefully to represent the group as a whole.

42. representative sample A survey’s representative sample refers to a sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole. Typically, a representative sample is designed to have equal measures based on gender, age or race, depending upon the survey.

43. questionnaire There are two main ways in which survey information is gathered. The first of these is a questionnaire – a written set of questions to be answered by a research participant.

44. interview There are two main ways in which survey information is gathered. The first of these is an interview – a survey method in which a trained researcher asks questions and records the answers.

45. close-ended questions A close-ended question is one where the respondent has a limited array of answers they can provide. An example of a close-ended question might include: Do you believe in abortion? Yes or no? How did you find the lesson? Very interesting, interesting, boring or very boring?

46. open-ended questions An open-ended question is one where the respondent can answer using their own words. An example of an open-ended question might include: How do you feel President Obama has done in his working relationship with Congressional Republicans? What is your opinion of the meal you had this evening?

47. secondary analysis Secondary analysis refers to the use of pre-collected information or data. Examples of secondary analysis includes government reports (census), company records (salary information), voting logs (who is and is not voting) and prison records (average sentence per crime).

48. field research Field research is that research that takes place in natural (meaning non-laboratory) setting. An example of field research would be a scientist moving to the Amazon Rain Forest in Brazil to observe the social behaviors of native tribes who have had limited contact with outsiders.

49. case study A case study is an intensive study of a single group, incident or community. If one does a study over drug use in the city of Chicago, it is fair to assume that the usage will be similar in Baltimore or Dallas.

50. participant observation A participant observation is a case study where the researcher becomes a member of the group being studied. An example would be the work of John Howard Griffin, who in 1961, wrote a book entitled Black Like Me. In his study, Griffin, a white man, altered his appearance to be black and traveled through the South in an attempt to understand the nature of the lives of blacks in the region. However, not all participant observers are secret in their identity.