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Writing

Writing. Isabelle Rapin Seminar on developmental disabilities December 14, 2012 No conflict of interest. Quick Review: Dysphasia and Dyslexia. Oral & Written Language. Oral language develops gradually without specific instruction provided adequate exposure to its conversational use

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Writing

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  1. Writing Isabelle Rapin Seminar on developmental disabilities December 14, 2012 No conflict of interest

  2. Quick Review:Dysphasia and Dyslexia

  3. Oral & Written Language • Oral language • develops gradually without specific instruction • provided adequate exposure to its conversational use • Reading written language • grafted on oral language • requires specific instruction • Producing written language • grafted on reading • + requires fine motor skill

  4. One-way path in language processing Input Output (sensory) (motor) Decoding Higher order Encoding processing

  5. Levels of language encoding Phonology (articulation/intelligibility, prosody) Grammar/syntax Semantics: word/sentence Pragmatics: verbal/nonverbal 5

  6. Language areas in the left hemisphere

  7. Required mechanisms for reading • Auditory processing • Phonological awareness (phoneme/letter relation, word segmentation) • Phonological decoding (regular non-words) • Orthographic coding (irregularly spelled words, homonyms) • Single word reading (accuracy, speed) • Spelling ability (real words, non-words, irregular words) Spika et al., Behav. Genet., 2011

  8. Phonological level • Phoneme = smallest linguistic sound unit in any particular language • Syllable = co-articulated phonemes processed as units (chunks) • Lexicons (i.e., dictionaries) in our brains • Phonologic • Auditory • Visual (letters, ideograms [complex=syllabic]) • Word meanings (semantics) • Word relations (grammar)

  9. Phonologic/reading development • > birth:can make all potential speech-sound discriminations • > ~ 1 year:chunk words into whole expressions • > ~ 2 years:begin to segment single words • 3-5 years:progressive awareness of phonemes, e.g., rhymes, initial consonant sounds, syllables, phonetic sequences, cadences • kindergarten:starting awareness of letter-sound mapping • 1st grade:read/spell mostly regular words • 2-3 grades:↑ fluency, learn irregular words, ↑ vocabulary, begin • to read for meaning • > ~ 3rd grade:fluent reading by-passes phonologic decoding, goes directly to lexicon (word dictionary)

  10. Progressive reading competence • Word recognition (phonology) • Phonetically consistent (words/nonwords) • Phonetically inconsistent (e.g., yacht, blood) • Reading fluency (direct access to lexicon) • Comprehension • At the word level (vocabulary) • At the sentence level (+ grammar) • At the idea level (reading now automatic)

  11. Cortical activation during reading Shaywitz et al. 2008

  12. Brain basis of most prevalentdyslexia • Underactivity of posterior brain regions • Overactivity of interior frontal cortex concerned with speech articulation • Remediation improves but does not “cure” dyslexia • Tend to read slowly • Fluency improves but difficulty reading non-words persists • Poor spelling, etc. very likely

  13. WRITING

  14. Writing deficits • Writing: hierarchically related to reading • Dysorthographia (poor spelling): the telling sign of compensated dyslexia • Spelling and writing: related to speech articulation • all 3 outputs involve translating inner language into sound-based fine motor commands • Speech requires continuous feedback monitoring of the accuracy of production (phonological loop)

  15. Modes of language output • 1. gestures • 2. speech articulation • 3. writing • handwriting • spelling • 4. Sign, other symbolic codes

  16. What is writing? • “Transcription is a basic cognitive process … that enables the writer to translate internal language into external written symbols to express ideas in written language. … Transcription ability draws on handwriting and spelling.” Berninger et al . 2009

  17. Language outputs • All are motor • Skilled speakers, readers, & writers program motor commands to express retrieved chunks of inner language from the lexicon • Execute commands ‘on line’ in parallel with • retrieval of next language chunk to be expressed • and programming of the commands for its production • Requires a high degree of over-learning and automation

  18. Relation of reading & writing to speech articulation • Children learning to read regularly articulate sotto vocewhat they are deciphering • They do as well when writing • Fades as reading/writing become automatized • Many compensated dyslexics continue silent articulation when reading and writing

  19. VAA: Writing vs. copying

  20. Development of speech awareness • 1. At birth: ability to make any auditory discrimination adopted by any language • 2. Discriminate the stream of speech from other environmental sounds • 2. Segment word-chunks from the stream • 3. Segment syllables in phrases & words • 4. Segment individual phonemes

  21. Auditory Processing for Reading • Identifying/segmenting individual words • Steps toward identifying individual phonemes/syllables, e.g., • First phonemes/syllables • Phonemic games • Rhymes • Reciting the alphabet • Learning letter names • Relating letter names to phonemes

  22. Prerequisites for reading/writing • Syllabication, then individual phonemes • Relate letter names/shapes to perceived and produced speech • Learn to point to, tap on keyboard, reproduce (write) letters on the basis of letter names

  23. Writing • Orthography (letter/syllable spelling) • essential basis for learning to read and write • Whole word knowledge • essential for fluent reading/writing • Speaking/writing • translation of inner language into motor commands for • speech articulation • writing letters. keyboarding

  24. Writing Engages Multilevel Processes • integration of vision + audition • phonologic discrimination • several memory processes • attention • acquisition of specific fine motor skills

  25. Memory requirements • Short term sequential memory for spoken/read phonemes, words, phrases • Working memory: needed to • retrieve needed material from long term storage • compare new input with stored material • evaluate on-line significance of input • prepare commands for motor output • Monitor output • Store output

  26. Visual perception • Letter shapes • Rounded • Angular • Right/left orientation • Up/down awareness • Sizing • Spacing

  27. Auditory/visual integration • In response to letter names: • identifying corresponding printed caps • identifying printed lower case letters • identifying cursive letters • eventually identifying unusual scripts/fonts

  28. Letter reversals Examples: p/q, b/d, d/p, b/q, m/w, backward f, s, z, etc. • Most in lower case print • Normal in preschoolers and up to ~ 3rd grade • Not predictive of either dyslexia or dysgraphia • Not due to defective visual perception • If persistent consider • inefficient working memory • Spatial, R/L confusion (incl. Gerstmann syndrome)

  29. Dysgraphia • Classic motor deficit • Deficit in rapid fine motor control (timed) • Deficient procedural memory  inadequate learning of motor sequences • Inattention (ADHD) • Lack of motivation

  30. Frequent in ASD (e.g., DeLong, Mostofsky) Also frequent in ADHD (also inconsistent size and legibility) Micrographia Frequent in OCD Sometimes in Asperger-type ASD Macrographia

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