Chapter 9 Motivation and Emotion

1. Chapter 9Motivation and Emotion

2. Chapter 9 Overview • Explaining motivation • Social motives • Hunger • Sexual motivation • Emotion

3. Explaining Motivation • Motivation is all the processes that initiate, direct and sustain behavior • Motive is the need or desire that energizes and directs behavior toward a goal

4. How do the three components of motivation work together to influence behavior? • Activation • Taking the first steps toward a goal • Persistence • Continuing to work toward a goal despite encountering obstacles • Intensity • The energy and attention applied to achieve a goal

5. What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation? • Intrinsic motivation • Desire to perform an act because it is satisfying or pleasurable in and of itself • e.g., A child reads a book because it is fun • Extrinsic motivation • Desire to perform an act to gain an external reward or avoid an undesirable consequence • e.g., A child reads a book to avoid losing TV privileges

6. How do drive-reduction and arousal theory explain motivation? • In many species, behavior is motivated by instincts • Fixed behavior patterns characteristic of every member of a species • e.g., spiders spinning webs, birds migrating • No true instincts motivate human behavior • But, biological forces underlie some human behaviors

7. Drive-reduction theory

8. The Yerkes-Dodson law • States that task performance is best when arousal level is appropriate to task difficulty • Higher arousal for simple tasks • Moderate arousal for moderate tasks • Low arousal for difficult tasks

9. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs • Abraham Maslow proposed that human needs are hierarchical • Humans are motivated by their lowest unmet need • When lower needs are met, the ultimate goal is self-actualization

10. According to Maslow, how do individuals attain self-actualization? • Maslow studied people who exemplified self- actualization • e.g., Abraham Lincoln, Thomas Jefferson, Albert Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt • Self-actualizers • Perceive reality accurately • Believe they have a mission to accomplish • Devote their lives to some larger good • Frequently have peak experiences • Experiences of deep meaning, insight, and harmony with the universe

11. Social Motives • Motive (such as the needs for affiliation and achievement) that is acquired through experience and interaction with others

12. How do need for achievement theory and goal orientation theory explain achievement motivation? • Henry Murray developed the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) • A series of pictures of ambiguous situations • Person taking the test is asked to create a story about each picture • The stories are presumed to reveal the test taker’s needs • According to Murray, one motive revealed by the TAT is need for achievement (n Ach) • The need to accomplish something difficult and to perform at a high standard of excellence

13. How do need for achievement theory and goal orientation theory explain achievement motivation? • Goal orientation theory proposes that achievement motivation varies according to which of four goal orientations one adopts • Mastery approach orientation • Mastery avoidance orientation • Performance avoidance orientation • Performance approach orientation

14. What kinds of conditions affect work motivation? • Work motivation is the conditions responsible for arousal, direction, magnitude, and maintenance of effort of workers • Two effective ways to increase work motivation • Reinforcement • Goal setting

15. What kinds of conditions affect work motivation? • Research suggests that organizations can enhance employees’ commitment to goals by • Having them participate in goal setting • Making goals specific, attractive, difficult, and attainable • Providing feedback on performance • Rewarding employees for attaining goals

16. Hunger • Primary drives are unlearned motives that serve to satisfy biological needs, states of tension or arousal that arise from a biological need and are unlearned

17. How do internal and external cues influence eating behavior? • External cues that stimulate eating include • Appetizing smell, taste, or appearance of food • Being around others who are eating • Reaction to boredom, stress, or an unpleasant emotional state • External cues that inhibit eating include • Unappetizing smell, taste, or appearance of food • Acquired taste aversions • Reaction to stress or an unpleasant emotional state

18. What are the proposed causes of eating disorders, and how are these disorders treated? • Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by overwhelming, irrational fear of gaining weight or becoming fat, compulsive dieting to the point of starvation, and excessive weight loss • Causes of this disorder are not well understood • But risk factors include being overly worried about physical appearance, feeling social pressure to be thin, and obsessive-compulsive disorder • Treatment is difficult • Psychotherapy, self-help groups, antidepressant medication, protein supplements can help

19. What are the proposed causes of eating disorders, and how are these disorders treated? • Bulemia is an eating disorder characterized by repeated and uncontrolled episodes of binge eating • Causes not well understood • People with bulimia have high rates of obsessive-compulsive disorder and high rates of self-injurious behavior • Treatment is difficult • Behavior modification, cognitive-behavioral therapy, antidepressant medications are sometimes effective

20. Sexual Motivation • An important motivational domain more openly discussed now than was true before Kinsey’s (1948) landmark research findings became known

21. How do sexual attitudes and behavior vary across cultures and genders? • Frequency of sexual activity varies across cultures • People on some countries report higher levels of sexual activity • e.g., Greece, United States • In other countries, levels of sexual activity are lower • e.g., Japan • In all cultures, men and women differ in attitudes about sex

22. How do sexual attitudes and behavior vary across cultures and genders? • Survey research suggests that, compared to women, men • Think about sex more often • Are more likely to be interested in purely physical sex with no emotional involvement • Are more concerned about sexual fidelity in a partner, while women are more concerned about emotional fidelity

23. How do sexual attitudes and behavior vary across cultures and genders? • Evolutionary psychologists explain differences between men and women in terms of parental investment • Women make large investment in offspring • As a result, are selective in choosing mates and value emotional fidelity in a mate • Men make smaller investment • So seek more partners and partners with high reproductive capacity

24. Emotion • An identifiable feeling state involving physiological arousal, a cognitive appraisal of the situation or stimulus causing that internal body state, and an outward behavior expressing the state

25. What are the various theories thathave been proposed to explain emotion?

26. What are the various theories thathave been proposed to explain emotion? • The Cannon Bard theory suggests that emotion-provoking stimulus is transmitted simultaneously to the cerebral cortex, which is responsible for conscious experience of the emotion, and to the sympathetic nervous system, which causes physiological arousal • So, emotions are experienced psychologically and physiologically at the same time

27. What are the various theories thathave been proposed to explain emotion? • The Schachter-Singer two-factor theory suggests that two things must happen for a person to feel an emotion • There must be physiological arousal • There must be a cognitive interpretation of the arousal, so the person can label it as a specific emotion

28. What are the various theories thathave been proposed to explain emotion? • The Lazarus theory proposes that a cognitive appraisal is the first step in an emotional response, and that all other aspects of an emotion, including physiological arousal, depend on it

29. Which aspects of emotion are universal, and which vary across cultures? • Basic emotions are unlearned and universal • They are found in all cultures • Emerge in children according to a predictable developmental timetable • Fear, anger, disgust, surprise, joy or happiness, and sadness or distress are usually considered the basic emotions • They are reflected in the same facial expressions in all cultures • But, cultures have very different display rules • Rules that dictate how emotions should be expressed and when and where their expression is appropriate

30. Which aspects of emotion are universal, and which vary across cultures? • Facial-feedback hypothesis is the idea that muscular movements involved in certain facial expressions produce the corresponding emotions • Research supports this hypothesis • e.g., if you are angry and you adopt an angry expression, you will feel even angrier

31. In what ways do males and females differ with regard to emotions? • When betrayed • Men are more likely to feel angry • Women are more likely to feel sad or disappointed • Men are more likely to express anger in public • In private, men and women do not differ • Research suggests that women experience more intense and frequent emotions than men • With the exception of anger