Chapter 10 Motivation and Emotion

1. Chapter 10 Motivation and Emotion

2. Defining Motivation, and a Model • Dynamics of behavior that initiate, sustain, direct, and terminate actions • Model of motivation • Need: Internal deficiency; causes drive • Drive: Energized motivational state (e.g., hunger, thirst); activates a response • Response: Action or series of actions designed to attain a goal • Goal: Target of motivated behavior

3. Incentive Value • Goal’s appeal beyond its ability to fill a need • Example: taste in addition to food as fuel • Style in addition to basic clothes protecting us from the elements

4. Needs and incentives interact to determine drive strength. (a) Moderate need combined with a high-incentive goal produces a strong drive. (b) Even when a strong need exists, drive strength may be moderate if a goal’s incentive value is low. It is important to remember, however, that incentive value lies “in the eye of the beholder” Fig. 10-1ab, p. 321

5. No matter how hungry, few people would be able to eat the pictured grub worms. Fig. 10-1 (photo), p. 321

6. Types of Motives • Biological motive: Innate (inborn) motives based on biological needs that must be met to survive e.g., hunger, thirst • Stimulus motive: Needs for stimulation and information; appear to be innate, but not necessary for survival, overcoming boredom • Learned motive: Based on learned needs, drives, and goals e.g., blogging, facebook updates

7. Homeostasis • Steady state of body equilibrium; balance • We are generally trying to seek this in some format when we alter our state of being or consciousness

8. Circadian Rhythms • Cyclical changes in bodily functions and arousal levels that vary on a schedule approximating a 24-hour day, one way to assess circadian rhythms • Our body temperatures change gradually when we are in deep sleep, we get a few degrees colder • Pre-adaptation: Gradual matching of sleep-waking cycles to a new time schedule before an anticipated circadian rhythm change • e.g., trying to adjust to new time zone to avoid jet lag • Melatonin: Hormone produced by pineal gland in response to light (production suppressed) and dark (production increased)

9. Jet Lag • Disturbed body rhythms caused by rapid travel east or west • Major time shifts (5 hours or more) can cause very slow adaptation • Direction of travel affects adaptation, and thus, severity of jet lag • Much easier to go east to west than west to east

10. Hunger • Hypoglycemia: Low blood sugar • Hypothalamus: Brain structure; regulates many aspects of motivation and emotion, including hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior • Feeding system: Area in the lateral hypothalamus that, when stimulated, initiates eating • Satiety system: Area in the ventromedial hypothalamus that terminates eating • keeps blood sugar levels steady by starting and stopping eating

11. Fig. 10-5, p. 324

12. More on Eating Behavior • Neuropeptide Y (NPY): Substance in the brain that initiates eating; works on paraventricular nucleus in hypothalamus • Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1): Substance in brain that terminates eating • Set point: Proportion of body fat that is maintained by changes in hunger and eating; point where weight stays the same when you make no effort to gain or lose weight

13. Fig. 10-6, p. 325

14. Damage to the hunger satiety system in the hypothalamus can produce a very fat rat, a condition called hypothalamic hyperphagia (hi-per-FAGE-yah: overeating). Fig. 10-7, p. 325

15. The Final Word on Eating Behavior • Leptin: Substance released by fat cells that inhibits eating • External eating cues: Signs and signals linked with food

16. Taste • Taste aversion: Active dislike for a particular food • VERYdifficult to overcome • Bait shyness: Unwillingness or hesitation by animals to eat a particular food

17. Behavioral Dieting • Weight reduction based on changing exercise and eating habits and not on temporary self-starvation • Some keys • Start with a complete physical • Exercise • Be committed to weight loss

18. Behavioral Dieting (cont) • Observe yourself, keep an eating diary, and keep a chart of daily progress • Eat based on hunger, not on taste or learned habits that tell you to always clean your plate • Avoid snacks • Learn to weaken personal eating cues

19. What is the operational definition for “obese”? A near epidemic of obesity has occurred in the United States during the last 20 years, with 65 percent of all Americans now classified as overweight Fig. 10-8, p. 326

20. Eating Disorders: Anorexia Nervosa • Active self-starvation or sustained loss of appetite that seems to have psychological origins • Control issues seem to be involved • Very difficult to effectively treat • Overwhelmingly affects adolescent females • About 10% are male

21. Eating Disorders: Bulimia Nervosa • Excessive eating (gorging) usually followed by self-induced vomiting and/or taking laxatives • Difficult to treat • Prozac and Zoloft approved by FDA to treat bulimia nervosa • Affects more females than males • About 25% are male

22. Table 10-1, p. 330

23. Causes of Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa • Anorexics and bulimics have exaggerated fears of becoming fat; they think they are fat when the opposite is true • Bulimics are obsessed with food and weight; anorectics with perfect control • Anorexics will often be put on a “weight-gain” diet to restore weight • Treat with cognitive-behavioral techniques

24. Thirst • Extracellular thirst: When water is lost from fluids surrounding the cells of the body • Intracellular thirst: When fluid is drawn out of cells because of increased concentration of salts and minerals outside the cell • Best satisfied by drinking water

25. Pain Avoidance • An episodic drive • Occurs in distinct episodes when bodily damage takes place or is about to occur

26. Tolerance for pain and the strength of a person’s motivation to avoid discomfort are greatly affected by cultural practices and beliefs p. 332

27. Sex Drive • Sex drive: Strength of one’s motivation to engage in sexual behavior • Estrus: Changes in sex drives in animals, which creates a desire for sex; females in heat • Estrogen: A female sex hormone • Androgens: Male hormones • Non-homeostatic drive: Independent of bodily need states or physical deprivation cycles

28. Non Sexual-Stimulus Drives • Reflect needs for information, exploration, manipulation, and sensory input • Arousal: Activation of the body and nervous system • Hypo-stress: not enough arousal can make you bored, or tired, example with jobs

29. Yerkes-Dodson Law • If a task is simple, it is best for arousal to be high; if it is complex, lower levels of arousal provide for the best performance • Arousal theory: Assumes people prefer to maintain ideal, or comfortable, levels of arousal • Sensation seeking: Trait of people who prefer high levels of stimulation, adventurers

30. Monkeys happily open locks that are placed in their cage. Because no reward is given for this activity, it provides evidence for the existence of stimulus needs. Fig. 10-10, p. 333

31. The general relationship between arousal and efficiency can be described by an inverted U curve. The optimal level of arousal or motivation is higher for a simple task (b) than for a complex task (c). Fig. 10-11, p. 335

32. Test Anxiety • High levels of arousal and worry that seriously impair test performance • How to Cope With Test Anxiety • Preparation • Relaxation • Rehearsal • Restructuring thoughts

33. Learned Motives • Opponent-process theory: Strong emotions tend to be followed by an opposite emotional state; strength of both emotional states changes over time • Social motives: Acquired by growing up in a particular society or culture

34. Some Needs • Need for achievement (nAch): Desire to meet some internal standard of excellence • Need for power: Desire to have social impact or control over others

35. Abraham Maslow and Needs • Hierarchy of human heeds: Maslow’s ordering of needs based on presumed strength or potency; some needs are more powerful than others and thus will influence your behavior to a greater degree

36. Maslow’s Needs • Basic needs: First four levels of needs in Maslow’s hierarchy • Lower needs tend to be more potent than higher needs • Love and belonging • Need for esteem and self-esteem • Growth needs: Higher-level needs associated with self-actualization • Meta-needs: Needs associated with impulses for self-actualization

37. Fig. 10-13, p. 338

38. Types of Motivation • Intrinsic motivation: Motivation coming from within, not from external rewards; based on personal enjoyment of a task or activity • Extrinsic motivation: Based on obvious external rewards, obligations, or similar factors

39. Emotions • State characterized by physiological arousal and changes in facial expressions, gestures, posture, and subjective feelings • Adaptive behaviors: Aid our attempts to survive and adjust to changing conditions • Physiological changes (in emotions): Include heart rate, blood pressure, perspiration, and other involuntary responses

40. More on Emotions • Adrenaline: Hormone produced by adrenal glands that arouses the body • Emotional expression: Outward signs of what a person is feeling • Emotional feelings: Private emotional experience

41. Primary Emotions and Mood (Plutchik, 2003) • Eight primary emotions • Fear • Surprise • Sadness • Disgust • Anger • Anticipation • Joy • Trust

42. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)Door • Neural system that connects brain with internal organs and glands • Activity’s automatic, not voluntary • Sympathetic branch: Part of ANS that activates body for emergency action • Parasympathetic branch: Part of ANS that quiets body and conserves energy • Parasympathetic rebound: Overreaction to intense emotion

43. The parasympathetic branch of the ANS calms and quiets the body. The sympathetic branch arouses the body and prepares it for emergency action. Fig. 10-17, p. 343

44. Lie Detectors • Polygraph: Device that records changes in heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and galvanic skin response (GSR); lie detector • GSR: Measures sweating

45. Questions Asked While Taking a Polygraph • Irrelevant questions: Neutral, nonthreatening, non-emotional questions in a polygraph test • Relevant questions: Questions to which only someone guilty should react • Control questions: Questions that almost always provoke anxiety in a polygraph (e.g. “Have you ever taken any office supplies?”)

46. (a) A typical polygraph includes devices for measuring heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and galvanic skin response. Pens mounted on the top of the machine make a record of bodily responses on a moving strip of paper. Fig. 10-18a, p. 344

47. (b) Changes in the area marked by the arrow indicate emotional arousal. If such responses appear when a person answers a question, he or she may be lying, but other causes of arousal are also possible. Fig. 10-18b, p. 344

48. Body Language (Kinesics) • Study of communication through body movement, posture, hand gestures, and facial expressions • Facial blends: Mix of two or more basic expressions

49. Three Basic Dimensions of Facial Expressions • Pleasantness–unpleasantness • Attention–rejection • Activation: Degree of arousal a person is experiencing

50. Chameleon Effect • Unconsciously imitating the postures, mannerisms, and facial expressions of others as we interact with them