Motivation: Why we do things and why we don’t?

1. Motivation: Why we do things and why we don’t? Dr. David De Cremer

2. Definition • Performance • Importance to Self • The process of arousing, directing and maintaining behavior toward a goal • Arousal: drive/energy behind actions • Direction: choice of behavior • Maintenance: people’s persistence

3. Overview • Types of motivation: Intrinsic-extrinsic • Importance of human needs • Expectancy theory • Fairness: Equity/Procedural fairness • Goal-setting theory • Leadership: Charisma

4. Intrinsic-extrinsic motivation • Why do we engage in activities? • Intrinsic = enjoyment of engaging in the activity itself (an end in itself) • Extrinsic = focus on rewards (means to an end) • Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000): autonomy, competence and relatedness • To express oneself by means of need fulfillment (= self-determination)

5. Intrinsic-extrinsic (continued) • Psychological needs: specific innate psychological nutriments that are essential for ongoing psychological growth, integrity and well-being. • Adaptation to environment (performance) • Fulfillment of these needs will enhance intrinsic motivation

6. Autonomy • Freedom of choice, action is self-determined • Most important one (Deci & Ryan) • Study on REWARDS (threats with noice, surveillance, autonomous supported teachers) • Rewards undermine intrinsic motivation • However, less so if rewards are non-task contingent • Overjustification effect

7. Competence • The drive of being effective • Positive feedback enhances intrinsic motivation and negative feedback undermines it (if individuals feel responsible for the outcome) • Autonomy and competence work together to explain many results

8. Relatedness (need to belong) • Intrinsic motivation more likely in contexts of secure relatedness (groups to survive) • Experiment (De Cremer, UM, 2001) • Performance context: social dilemma • Conflict personal and group’s interest (contribute or not) • I.V.: Respect and standing within the group • Matter of inclusiveness

10. Intrinsic-extrinsic motivation • Cognitive effect: “If you do A then you can do B” (preference activity) • How to enhance intrinsic motivation? • Role model as source of intrinsic motivation (e.g. piano teacher) • Challenge, curiosity, feelings of control • Fulfillment of needs

11. Expectancy Theory • The role of expectations concerning success (e.g. good grades) • When do you put a lot of efforts in? • Expectancy theory asserts that people are motivated to exert effort if the belief exists that this will help to achieve desirable outcomes. • People as rational being: • Expectancy: outcome is attainable by effort (training required) • Value: the meaning of the reward/outcome (e.g. money, vacation, cafetaria benefits)

12. Expectancy theory (continued) • Group level: social loafing/free-riding • Reason for low/high productivity • Individuals expected to put effort in: • If they value the behavior or the outcome (effect GROUP IDENTIFICATION) • If a contingency between behavior and outcome is perceived (effect SELF-EFFICACY) • Two experimental studies (De Cremer, 1999, 2001)

13. Experimental studies • Experiment 1: Effect group identification • Consequence: self-interest and group’s interest are interchangeable (self-categorization processes) • Goal-transformation hypothesis • Test: particularly for those with a pro-self orientation or goal (social value orientations; De Cremer & van Lange, 2001) • Support for the value-assumption

15. Experimental studies • Experiment 2: effect self-efficacy and group identification • Support for the expectancy-assumption • Value and expectancy are two independent components and need both to be fulfilled to reveal optimal performance

17. Fairness: Equity • Review: fairness concerns are pervasive • Equity concerns: people compare themselves to others by focusing on outcomes (pay, prestige) and inputs (time worked, effort) • I other/O own vs. I other/ O other • 3 different states: overpayment, underpayment equitable payment • Emotional consequences: injustice=negative emotional state Specific behaviors

18. Fairness (continued) • How to restore inequity (actions)? • People turn inequitable outcomes into equitable (stealing, less effort etc.) • E.g.: basketball, temporary pay cut • Cognitive: altering thinking about own and other’s outcomes • Procedural fairness: procedures used to determine outcomes • Promotes OCB, commitment and performance • Self-interest and Relational interest (Lind)

19. Goal-setting theory • Focus on why individuals with similar qualities may perform differently? • Depends on PERFORMANCE GOALS • 1. Assign specific goals (self-efficacy) • 2. Use difficult, but attainable goals • 3. Provide feedback • Goal-setting facilitates self-regulation (provides a path toward the desired outcome)

20. Leadership: charisma • Is about exerting influence! • Top 10 sayings of ineffective leaders • 10. We don’t do it that way around here • 9. I don’t care what they told you in that training class, this is the real world (self-efficacy) • 8. Drop what you are doing and get this to me as soon as possible • 7. Don’t worry about WHY, just do it! • 6. Don’t let me influence your decisions, but here’s my opinion • 5. I want you to take risks, but remember our motto: DO it right the first time • 4. You’re planning to work this weekend aren’t you? • 3. You oughta, wanta do this. • 2. We need teamwork. By the way, I’ll be doing your individual rankings this weekend. • 1. If and when I want your opinion, I’ll give it to you. Autonomy, fairness, competence, self-efficacy are challenged

21. Leadership (continued) • Transformational leadership: motivate people to go beyond their self-interest • Charisma: to appeal to group members’ motives, aspirations and preferences, articulation of a compelling vision. Provide a PATH (goal-setting)!! • “You can only lead others where you yourself are willing to go” (Lachlan Mclean) • Instill commitment and vision among employees

22. Leadership (continued) • Experiment (De Cremer, in press, UM) • Self-sacrifice vs. benefiting • Pro-selfs vs. pro-socials • Transformation of motives • Modeling behavior, path, trust, fairness • www.leaderx.com (leadership skills)