KOMPENDIUM KAJIAN LINGKUNGAN DAN PEMBANGUNAN GREEN ENERGY

1. KOMPENDIUM KAJIAN LINGKUNGAN DAN PEMBANGUNAN GREEN ENERGY Dikoleksioleh: Sandra, AriefBoediono, EkoNuryono, danSoemarno PDKLP-PPSUB Mei 2012

2. ENERGI HIJAU KriteriaEnergiHijauSebagaiEnergiAlternatifEnergi yang telahbanyakdiupayakanolehmanusiaselainbatubara, minyakbumidanpanasbumidan air, adajugaenergisurya, angindan lain-lain. Energialternatif yang lagihangatdibahaspadatingkatnasionalmaupuninternasionaladalahenergibiodisel (energibahanbakarnabati-BBN) danbiomassa. Walausebenarnyakamiyakinienergibiodiseldanapalagibiomassasudahsejakdahulukaladitemukandanbahkansudahdiaplikasikandalamkehidupanmasyarakatsehari-haritermasukmasyarakatdinegarakita. Apa yang dimaksudenergialternatif? EnergialternatifdalambudayaRevolusiLingkunganadalahenergi yang ramahlingkungan yang disebutjugaenergihijau. Energidaribiodiseldanbiomassaadalahenergihijaudanbeberapakriteriaenergihijausebagaialternatif yang telahkamikumpulkandaribeberapasumberdanditambahdenganpemikirankamiadalahsebagaiberikut: Energialternatifharustidakmenghasilkanemisikarbon yang akanmenyebabkanpemanasan global, dalamhalinienerginuklirtidaktermasukwalaudiketahuitidakmenghasilkanemisikarbontetapisekalilagikamimempunyaipandangan lain danmenentangkeraspemakaiandanpemanfaatanenerginukliruntukkehidupansehari-harimanusiakecualiuntukpenelitian. Baca dandengarkansuarakamimengapaharusnuklir? Energialternatiftidakmengakomodasisumbertanamanpanganatautanamanpertanianpenting yang dijadikankebutuhanpokokdantambahanpadasekelompokorangataubudayatertentusebagaipenghasilenergi. Karenamenurutkamiranahenergibanyakterkandungisustrategisdanpolitissuatunegaradankawasan Walaudarisegijeniskomoditasdanvaritastanamansudahmemenuhi, energialternatifjugatidakmemberikanancamankonversipemakaianlahanpertanian yang berlebihan, karenabagaimanapundibelahansudutmanapundiduniasemuamanusiamembutuhkanenergi yang samasehinggadariaspekekonomipastilebihmenguntungkanapalagikalaumengkonversilahanpertaniantradisional yang sudahmenjaditradisituruntemurun Energialternatiftidakdihasilkandenganmenghasilkanmasalahbarumisalmerubahkawasanhutan yang seharusnyasebagaipenyanggahparu-paruduniamalahmenjadibisnispertanianbiodisel Sumber: http://www.gipsyqueennature.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=308&Itemid=385&lang=en…. Diunduh 5/5/2012.

3. GREEN ENERGY Green energy is energy that is produced in a manner that has less of a negative impact to the environment than energy sources like fossil fuels, which are often produced with harmful side effects. “Greener” types of energy that often come to mind are solar, wind, geothermal and hydro energy. There are several more, even including nuclear energy, that is sometimes considered a green energy source because of its lower waste output relative to energy sources such as coal or oil. The goal of green energy is generally to create power with as little pollution as possible produced as a by-product. Every form of energy collection will result in some pollution, but those that are green are known to cause less than those that are not. Most people who advocate greener sources of energy claim that the result of worldwide use of green energy will result in the ability to preserve the planet for a longer time. Greenhouse gases, a by-product of traditional sources of energy such as fossil fuels are thought to be causing global warming, or the process of the Earth heating up at an accelerated pace. Renewable green energy is energy that comes from renewable sources, and lowers overall air pollution or negative environmental effects. Renewable energy is defined as energy coming from infinite sources rather than finite physical or commodity sources. Green energy is commonly defined as energy that lowers a negative impact by decreasing outgoing emissions of toxins like carbon dioxide and greenhouse gases. The collective term “renewable green energy” puts these two criteria together. Since the multiple criteria are in many ways complementary, renewable green energy represents the ideal choice for a range of government and business uses, as well as mass residential usage. Diunduhdari: http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-renewable-green-energy.htm Sumber: http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-green-energy.htm…. Diunduh 5/5/2012

4. Some of the main examples of renewable green energy include solar energy, wind energy, and hydropower or water generated energy. Other more obscure forms of energy that some call renewable and green are biomass energies, although experts could argue that these are actually finite sources, due to the necessary fertile land for production of the products that are used. Some common examples of non-renewable energies are fossil fuels. Coal and oil are the two main non-renewable energies that power much of the world’s energy use. Governments and businesses all over the world are trying to find renewable green energy solutions that will replace non-renewable or unsustainable polluting energy sources. In very basic terms, the appeal of renewable green energy is that the sources of this energy are not depleted. Solar power does not deplete the force of the sun, and wind or water power do not deplete the force of moving air or water. Likewise, these various forms of energy production do not result in the output of various volatile gases and particles that are hazardous to human and environmental health. Considering renewable green energy sources has become more important as the world’s population grows rapidly, and the total energy use of various nations increases on a seemingly exponential plane. Another consideration with renewable green energy is different methods for different uses. Renewable energy sources might be used to provide electricity for a grid, which is possible with solar and wind power. Renewable energies could also be used to heat a home or other building, where methods for generating these energies might be different, since such a high amount of energy is typically needed for heating and cooling. One innovative solution for renewable green heating is geothermal application. In these types of setups, the temperature of an interior space is controlled by water or other materials run through various conduits underneath the building at specific temperatures. Diunduhdari: http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-renewable-green-energy.htm Sumber: http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-renewable-green-energy.htm…. Diunduh 5/5/2012

5. . Types of Green Energy . Green energy is created from natural resources that do not cause harmful pollution to Earth's surface or atmosphere. With the concern of global warming and depleting natural resources, environmentally friendly alternatives are needed. Earth's sun, water and wind power have been used to operate machinery and generate power since ancient times. This article describes the different types of green energy that are currently being considered as alternative sources of power. Read more: Types of Green Energy | eHow.comhttp://www.ehow.com/about_4702917_types-green-energy.html#ixzz1tte9hCKq Hydropower Hydropower converts water from rivers into usable energy released from turbines. Before commercial electric power, it was used for irrigation and operation of machinery. Water wheels and mills produced flour from grain and sawing stone and wood. Today, it is considered very expensive and difficult to build hydropower plants to produce mass amounts of electricity. There are also concerns that their usage may affect wildlife and change the quality of the water. Read more: Types of Green Energy | eHow.comhttp://www.ehow.com/about_4702917_types-green-energy.html#ixzz1ttePkDH7 Geothermal Geothermal energy is produced from steam or hot water from under the Earth's surface. The steam powers electric generators by rotating turbines. One use for it is heating buildings. It is not widely available due to the lack of natural land sites. There are also concerns that geothermic fields may eventually deplete. The largest sites are in California, called the "Geysers." It is a green energy due to its low emissions. Its production is not affected by weather changes and can continuously work day and night. There are also some concerns about geothermal fields affecting the surrounding land's stability. Read more: Types of Green Energy | eHow.comhttp://www.ehow.com/about_4702917_types-green-energy.html#ixzz1tteaM5WP Sumber: …. Diunduh 5/5/2012

6. Wind Wind can be used to create energy by rotating large propellers like blades around a hub. The blades slow down the speed of the wind it captures and channels it to a generator that produces electricity. Wind energy usage worldwide is very small; the technology is expensive and its machinery is considered to be noisy. The few wind energy companies that produce electricity are privately owned and sell their electricity to public utilities. The energy it produces generates no pollution and has been used to power homes, farms and ranches. Read more: Types of Green Energy | eHow.comhttp://www.ehow.com/about_4702917_types-green-energy.html#ixzz1ttee0rOQ Solar Solar is another form of green energy. Photovoltaic cells can absorb light from the sun to capture electrons and use them to generate electricity. The sun has been used as a source of energy since ancient times. It gained some popularity after the energy crisis of 1973. However, it is still considered to be expensive due the cost to produce the photovoltaic celled panels needed to generate energy. These types panels are usually large and take up a lot of space. Solar energy is also inconsistent and needs a large surface area to generate enough electricity on a large scale. Despite its setbacks, solar energy is being used to power some homes, cars and in agriculture. Read more: Types of Green Energy | eHow.comhttp://www.ehow.com/about_4702917_types-green-energy.html#ixzz1ttenH3np Anaerobic digestion – a process where microorganisms break down organic material without any oxygen – produces a methane- and carbon dioxide-rich biogas. This can be burnt to produce energy, with none of the harmful effects of fossil fuels. And what's more, the nutrient-rich solids left after digestion can be handily used as a fertiliser! Diunduhdari: http://www.greenenergy.uk.com/TypesOfGreenEnergy.aspx Sumber: …. Diunduh 5/5/2012

7. WHAT IS GREEN ENERGY ? Biomass is produced from organic material – that's wood, plants and animal waste to you and me. We get this either directly from plants, or from waste products from industry, agriculture or your very own home! Biomass falls into two categories: Wood biomass includes forest products, waste wood and energy crops like elephant grass and quick-growing trees like willow. We buy energy created from burning waste wood. Non-wood biomass includes animal waste and biodegradable food products like vegetable oil. Diunduhdari: http://www.greenenergy.uk.com/TypesOfGreenEnergy.aspx SUMBER: http://ledprince.wordpress.com/ ….. DIUNDUH 10/3/2012

8. Biomass Biomass energy is produced from organic materials such as plants and animals, but the energy that is produced in this fashion is originally provided by the sun.  For example, plants absorb the sun’s energy through a process called photosynthesies.  This energy is then passed on through the organism that eats the plant, creating biomass energy.  The most common forms used to generate biomass energy are wood, crops, manure and some rubbish. When these substances are burned, they give off energy as heat.  For example, if you have a wood fuelled heating, you are generating renewable biomass energy.  This is not the only method of generating biomass energy; you can also create biomass energy by converting these substances into methane gases, ethanol and biodiesel fuels which can be translated more easily into our current methods of energy use. Biofuels Biofuels are a form of renewable energy derived from burning plant or animal substances, otherwise called combustion. One of the challenges to biofuels has been that it is not easily transferred into a liquid form which is the primary method used to fuel most cars and homes. Two of the most common strategies that are sed to produce biofuels includes: growing crops to produce ethanol and growing plants that produce biofuel oils. While these methods are effective sources of renewable energy, they are challenging to produce and maintain on a large scale. Wind An abundant source of renewable energy, wind power is used as a means of generating electricity. Wind turbines are capable of harnessing the power derived from the wind, converting kinetic energy into mechanical energy. A source of clean, green renewable energy, favourable climate conditions in Europe means wind energy is a highly viable method for electricity generation. And none more so than in the UK, with 40% of all wind energy in Europe blowing over the country. Sumber: http://www.renewablesguide.co.uk/primary-types-of-renewable-energy …. Diunduh 5/5/2012

9. Green energy, or renewable energy, is the use of sustainable, pollutant-free resources that benefit the environment by reducing overall waste production. By practicing green techniques in the home, people can reduce their gas and electricity consumption. There are several types of green energy, all of which work in specific ways to positively impact the planet and save consumers money by reducing the cost and necessity of fossil fuels to produce electricity. How Green Energy Works Solar energy harnesses radiation from the sun, converting sunlight into electricity through the use of photovoltaic cell devices, large mirrors, or lenses. Wind energy, or the energy of air in motion, can be converted into mechanical energy that generates electricity through the use of wind turbines. Water energy, or hydropower, is the practice of converting flowing water into mechanical energy through the use of penstock piping. Electricity is then derived from mechanical energy through use of a generator. Biomass energy, which can be produced from substances such as garbage, cow manure and wood, involves the burning of biomass fuel in boilers. This type of energy can be used in steam turbines to create electricity and can be used to heat water. Geothermal energy is generated underground through the trapping of heat. When the heat rises to the land surface, it is harnessed as steam and used in steam turbines to produce electricity. Sumber: http://solar-power-your-home.com/2012/03/the-different-types-of-green-energy/ …. Diunduh 5/5/2012

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12. RENEWABLE GREEN ENERGY Renewable green energy comes from green sources of energy. These sources are usually harnessed with little pollution. Geothermal power, wind, wave and solar power are some of the renewable green energy sources that are known today. Here we will describe all the kinds of renewable green energy sources currently in use and the efficiency and scale of these sources. We will look at what’s the best solution for our future energy demands. Will it depend on only one source of energy or will there be a wide range of energy sources we should use instead of the current polluting sources of energy?

13. ENERGY CONSERVATION Energy conservation is the practice of decreasing the quantity of energy used. It may be achieved through efficient energy use, in which case energy use is decreased while achieving a similar outcome, or by reduced consumption of energy services. Energy conservation may result in increase of financial capital, environmental value, national security, personal security, and human comfort. Individuals and organizations that are direct consumers of energy may want to conserve energy in order to reduce energy costs and promote economic security. Industrial and commercial users may want to increase efficiency and thus maximize profit.

14. ELECTRICAL ENERGY CONSERVATION Electrical energy conservation is an important element of energy policy. Energy conservation reduces the energy consumption and energy demand per capita, and thus offsets the growth in energy supply needed to keep up with population growth. This reduces the rise in energy costs, and can reduce the need for new power plants, and energy imports. The reduced energy demand can provide more flexibility in choosing the most preferred methods of energy production. By reducing emissions, energy conservation is an important part of lessening climate change. Energy conservation facilitates the replacement of non-renewable resources with renewable energy. Energy conservation is often the most economical solution to energy shortages, and is a more environmentally benign alternative to increased energy production.

15. Issues with energy conservation • Critics and advocates of some forms of energy conservation make the following arguments: • Standard economic theory suggests that technological improvements that increase energy efficiency will tend to increase, rather than reduce energy use. This is called the Jevons Paradox and it is said to occur in two ways. • Firstly, increased energy efficiency makes the use of energy relatively cheaper, thus encouraging increased use. • Secondly, increased energy efficiency leads to increased economic growth, which pulls up energy use in the whole economy. This does not imply that increased fuel efficiency is worthless. Increased fuel efficiency enables greater production and a higher quality of life • (Wackernagel, Mathis and William Rees, 1997, "Perpetual and structural barriers to investing in natural capital: economics from an ecological footprint perspective." Ecological Economics, Vol.20 No.3 p3-24). Energy efficiency may refer to: Efficient energy use, sometimes simply called energy efficiency. Energy conversion efficiency, the ratio between the output and input of an energy conversion machine. Energy conservation, efforts made to reduce energy consumption.

16. OVER-ILLUMINATION • Some retailers argue that bright lighting stimulates purchasing. Health studies have demonstrated that headache, stress, blood pressure, fatigue and worker error all generally increase with the common over-illumination present in many workplace and retail settings (Davis, 2001), (Bain, 1997). It has been shown that natural daylighting increases productivity levels of workers, while reducing energy consumption. • (Lumina Technologies Inc., Santa Rosa, Ca., Survey of 156 California commercial buildings energy use, August, 1996). • The use of telecommuting by major corporations is a significant opportunity to conserve energy, as many Americans now work in service jobs that enable them to work from home instead of commuting to work each day • (Best Buy Optimas Award Winner for 2007).

17. ELECTRIC MOTOR • Electric motors consume more than 60% of all electrical energy generated and are responsible for the loss of 10 to 20% of all electricity converted into mechanical energy • (European Commission of the Institute for Environment and Sustainability, "Electricity Consumption and Efficiency Trends in the Enlarged European Union http://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/energyefficiency/pdf/EnEff%20Report%202006.pdf", 2006) • Consumers are often poorly informed of the savings of energy efficient products. • The research one must put into conserving energy often is too time consuming and costly when there are cheaper products and technology available using today's fossil fuels. Sumber: http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/E/electric_motor.html .... diunduh 8/3/2012

18. E & E JOURNAL Energy & Environment (E&E) is a peer-reviewedacademic journal aimed at natural scientists, technologists, and the international social science and policy communities covering the direct and indirect environmental impacts of energy acquisition, transport, production and use. Its editor-in-chief since 1996 is Sonja Boehmer-Christiansen. Contributors have included David Henderson, Richard Tol, and Gary Yohe. "Social Sciences Citation Index". Thomson Reuters. http://science.thomsonreuters.com/cgi-bin/jrnlst/jlresults.cgi?PC=MASTER&ISSN=0958-305X. Retrieved 2011-05-03. "Environment Complete: Database Coverage List". EBSCO. http://www.ebscohost.com/titleLists/eih-coverage.pdf. Retrieved 2009-11-30.

19. DAMPAK LINGKUNGAN The environmental impact of the energy industry is diverse. Energy has been harnessed by humans for millennia. Initially it was with the use of fire for light, heat, cooking and for safety, and its use can be traced back at least 1.9 million years. In recent years there has been a trend towards the increased commercialization of various renewable energy sources. ENERGY CONSERVATION ISSUES The use of telecommuting by major corporations is a significant opportunity to conserve energy, as many Americans now work in service jobs that enable them to work from home instead of commuting to work each day. Electric motors consume more than 60% of all electrical energy generated and are responsible for the loss of 10 to 20% of all electricity converted into mechanical energy (European Commission of the Institute for Environment and Sustainability, "Electricity Consumption and Efficiency Trends in the Enlarged European Union ", 2006). Consumers are often poorly informed of the savings of energy efficient products. The research one must put into conserving energy often is too time consuming and costly when there are cheaper products and technology available using today's fossil fuels (The Difficulties of Energy Efficiency. "The Elusive Negawatt ", 2008).

20. RENEWABLE ENERGY Renewable energy is energy which comes from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, and geothermal heat, which are renewable (naturally replenished). About 16% of global final energy consumption comes from renewables, with 10% coming from traditional biomass, which is mainly used for heating, and 3.4% from hydroelectricity. New renewables (small hydro, modern biomass, wind, solar, geothermal, and biofuels) accounted for another 3% and are growing very rapidly (. The share of renewables in electricity generation is around 19%, with 16% of global electricity coming from hydroelectricity and 3% from new renewables. (Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century)

21. RENEWABLE ENERGY Renewable energy flows involve natural phenomena such as sunlight, wind, tides, plant growth, and geothermal heat, as the International Energy Agency explains: Renewable energy is derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly. In its various forms, it derives directly from the sun, or from heat generated deep within the earth. Included in the definition is electricity and heat generated from solar, wind, ocean, hydropower, biomass, geothermal resources, and biofuels and hydrogen derived from renewable resources. IEA Renewable Energy Working Party (2002). Renewable Energy... into the mainstream, p. 9.

22. RENEWABLE ENERGY Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct areas: electricity generation, hot water/ space heating, motor fuels, and rural (off-grid) energy services. Renewable energy is energy which comes from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, and geothermal heat, which are renewable (naturally replenished). About 16% of global final energy consumption comes from renewables, with 10% coming from traditional biomass, which is mainly used for heating, and 3.4% from hydroelectricity. New renewables (small hydro, modern biomass, wind, solar, geothermal, and biofuels) accounted for another 3% and are growing very rapidly. The share of renewables in electricity generation is around 19%, with 16% of global electricity coming from hydroelectricity and 3% from new renewables. . REN21 (2010). Renewables 2010 Global Status Report p. 15.

23. PEMBANGKIT ENERGI Renewable energy provides 19% of electricity generation worldwide. Renewable power generators are spread across many countries, and wind power alone already provides a significant share of electricity in some areas: for example, 14% in the U.S. state of Iowa, 40% in the northern German state of Schleswig-Holstein, and 20% in Denmark. Some countries get most of their power from renewables, including Iceland and Paraguay (100%), Norway (98%), Brazil (86%), Austria (62%), New Zealand (65%), and Sweden (54%). http://buildsolarpanelx.com/wind-power-generators-for-electricity REN21 (2010). Renewables 2010 Global Status Report p. 53.

24. PEMANAS DAN PENGHANGAT Solar hot water makes an important contribution to renewable heat in many countries, most notably in China, which now has 70% of the global total (180 GWth). Most of these systems are installed on multi-family apartment buildings and meet a portion of the hot water needs of an estimated 50–60 million households in China. Worldwide, total installed solar water heating systems meet a portion of the water heating needs of over 70 million households. The use of biomass for heating continues to grow as well. In Sweden, national use of biomass energy has surpassed that of oil. Direct geothermal for heating is also growing rapidly. REN21 (2010). Renewables 2010 Global Status Report p. 53.

25. TRANSPORT FUELS. Renewable biofuels have contributed to a significant decline in oil consumption in the United States since 2006. The 93 billion liters of biofuels produced worldwide in 2009 displaced the equivalent of an estimated 68 billion liters of gasoline, equal to about 5% of world gasoline production. Biofuels provided 3% of the world's transport fuel in 2010. Mandates for blending biofuels exist in 31 countries at the national level and in 29 states/provinces.According to the International Energy Agency, biofuels have the potential to meet more than a quarter of world demand for transportation fuels by 2050. Since the 1970s, Brazil has had an ethanol fuel program which has allowed the country to become the world's second largest producer of ethanol (after the United States) and the world's largest exporter. Brazil’s ethanol fuel program uses modern equipment and cheap sugarcane as feedstock, and the residual cane-waste (bagasse) is used to produce heat and power. There are no longer light vehicles in Brazil running on pure gasoline. By the end of 2008 there were 35,000 filling stations throughout Brazil with at least one ethanol pump. REN21 (2010). Renewables 2010 Global Status Report p. 53.

26. WIND POWER Airflows can be used to run wind turbines. Modern wind turbines range from around 600 kW to 5 MW of rated power, although turbines with rated output of 1.5–3 MW have become the most common for commercial use; the power output of a turbine is a function of the cube of the wind speed, so as wind speed increases, power output increases dramatically. Globally, the long-term technical potential of wind energy is believed to be five times total current global energy production, or 40 times current electricity demand. This could require wind turbines to be installed over large areas, particularly in areas of higher wind resources. Offshore resources experience average wind speeds of ~90% greater than that of land, so offshore resources could contribute substantially more energy EWEA Executive summary "Analysis of Wind Energy in the EU-25" (PDF). European Wind Energy Association.

27. WIND POWER Areas where winds are stronger and more constant, such as offshore and high altitude sites, are preferred locations for wind farms. Typical capacity factors are 20-40%, with values at the upper end of the range in particularly favourable sites. Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as using wind turbines to make electricity, windmills for mechanical power, windpumps for water pumping or drainage, or sails to propel ships. The total amount of economically extractable power available from the wind is considerably more than present human power use from all sources. At the end of 2011, worldwide nameplate capacity of wind-powered generators was 238 gigawatts (GW), growing by 41 GW over the preceding year. Wind power now (2010 data) has the capacity to generate 430 TWh annually, which is about 2.5% of worldwide electricity usage (World Wind Energy Report 2010" (PDF). Report. World Wind Energy Association. February 2011. http://www.wwindea.org/home/images/stories/pdfs/worldwindenergyreport2010_s.pdf) http://www.ewea.org/fileadmin/ewea_documents/documents/publications/WETF/Facts_Summary.pdf. How Does A Wind Turbine's Energy Production Differ from Its Power Production?[dead link]^Wind Power: Capacity Factor, Intermittency, and what happens when the wind doesn’t blow?.

28. WIND POWER Globally, the long-term technical potential of wind energy is believed to be five times total current global energy production, or 40 times current electricity demand. This could require wind turbines to be installed over large areas, particularly in areas of higher wind resources. Offshore resources experience average wind speeds of ~90% greater than that of land, so offshore resources could contribute substantially more energy. A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location used for production of electric power. A large wind farm may consist of several hundred individual wind turbines, and cover an extended area of hundreds of square miles, but the land between the turbines may be used for agricultural or other purposes. A wind farm may also be located offshore. Many of the largest operational onshore wind farms are located in the US. As of November 2010, the Roscoe Wind Farm is the largest onshore wind farm in the world at 781.5 MW, followed by the Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center (735.5 MW). As of November 2010, the Thanet Wind Farm in the UK is the largest offshore wind farm in the world at 300 MW, followed by Horns Rev II (209 MW) in Denmark. "Offshore stations experience mean wind speeds at 80 m that are 90% greater than over land on average.Evaluation of global wind power

29. HYDROPOWER Energy in water can be harnessed and used. Since water is about 800 times denser than air, even a slow flowing stream of water, or moderate sea swell, can yield considerable amounts of energy. There are many forms of water energy: Hydroelectric energy is a term usually reserved for large-scale hydroelectric dams. Examples are the Grand Coulee Dam in Washington State and the Akosombo Dam in Ghana. Micro hydro systems are hydroelectric power installations that typically produce up to 100 kW of power. They are often used in water rich areas as a remote-area power supply (RAPS). Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity systems derive kinetic energy from rivers and oceans without using a dam. Sumber: http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/wuhy.html …… diunduh 8/3/2012

30. SOLAR ENERGY Solar energy is the energy derived from the sun through the form of solar radiation. Solar powered electrical generation relies on photovoltaics and heat engines. A partial list of other solar applications includes space heating and cooling through solar architecture, daylighting, solar hot water, solar cooking, and high temperature process heat for industrial purposes. Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air. Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy ..... diunduh 8/3/2012

31. BIOMASS Biomass (plant material) is a renewable energy source because the energy it contains comes from the sun. Through the process of photosynthesis, plants capture the sun's energy. When the plants are burnt, they release the sun's energy they contain. In this way, biomass functions as a sort of natural battery for storing solar energy. As long as biomass is produced sustainably, with only as much used as is grown, the battery will last indefinitely. In general there are two main approaches to using plants for energy production: growing plants specifically for energy use (known as first and third-generation biomass), and using the residues (known as second-generation biomass) from plants that are used for other things. Union of Concerned Scientists. How Biomass Energy Works

32. BIOFUEL Biofuels include a wide range of fuels which are derived from biomass. The term covers solid biomass, liquid fuels and various biogases. Liquid biofuels include bioalcohols, such as bioethanol, and oils, such as biodiesel. Gaseous biofuels include biogas, landfill gas and synthetic gas. Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermenting the sugar components of plant materials and it is made mostly from sugar and starch crops. With advanced technology being developed, cellulosic biomass, such as trees and grasses, are also used as feedstocks for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane and improve vehicle emissions. Bioethanol is widely used in the USA and in Brazil. Biodiesel is made from vegetable oils, animal fats or recycled greases. Biodiesel can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a diesel additive to reduce levels of particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons from diesel-powered vehicles. Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is the most common biofuel in Europe. Biofuels provided 2.7% of the world's transport fuel in 2010. REN21 (2011). "Renewables 2011: Global Status Report". pp. 13–14. http://www.ren21.net/Portals/97/documents/GSR/GSR2011_Master18.pdf.

33. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter. Earth's geothermal energy originates from the original formation of the planet (20%) and from radioactive decay of minerals (80%). The geothermal gradient, which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface. The adjective geothermal originates from the Greek roots geo, meaning earth, and thermos, meaning heat. The heat that is used for geothermal energy can be stored deep within the Earth, all the way down to Earth’s core – 4,000 miles down. At the core, temperatures may reach over 9,000 degrees Fahrenheit. Heat conducts from the core to surrounding rock. Extremely high temperature and pressure cause some rock to melt, which is commonly known as magma. Magma convects upward since it is lighter than the solid rock. This magma then heats rock and water in the crust, sometimes up to 700 degrees Fahrenheit. Nemzer, J. "Geothermal heating and cooling". http://www.geothermal.marin.org/.

34. BIOFUELS FOR TRANSPORTATION Biofuels provided 3% of the world's transport fuel in 2010. Mandates for blending biofuels exist in 31 countries at the national level and in 29 states/provinces. According to the International Energy Agency, biofuels have the potential to meet more than a quarter of world demand for transportation fuels by 2050. Since the 1970s, Brazil has had an ethanol fuel program which has allowed the country to become the world's second largest producer of ethanol (after the United States) and the world's largest exporter. Brazil’s ethanol fuel program uses modern equipment and cheap sugarcane as feedstock, and the residual cane-waste (bagasse) is used to produce heat and power. There are no longer light vehicles in Brazil running on pure gasoline. By the end of 2008 there were 35,000 filling stations throughout Brazil with at least one ethanol pump. Daniel Budny and Paulo Sotero, editor (2007-04). "Brazil Institute Special Report: The Global Dynamics of Biofuels" (PDF). Brazil Institute of the Woodrow Wilson Center. http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/pubs/Brazil_SR_e3.pdf. Retrieved 2008-05-03.

35. The central role of photosynthesis in bio-fuel production. Photosynthesis plays an absolutely central role in all bio-fuel production processes as it is the first step in the conversion of solar energy (light) to chemical energy and therefore ultimately responsible for driving the production of the feed stocks required for fuel synthesis : protons & electrons (for bio-H2), sugars & starch (for bio-ethanol), oils (for bio-diesel) and biomass (for BTL & bio-methane). Consequently, any increase in photosynthetic efficiency will enhance the competitiveness of bio-fuel production in general. Sumber: http://solarbiofuels.org/consortium.php ….. Diunduh 9/3/2012

36. ARTIFICIAL PHOTOSYNTHESIS Artificial photosynthesis uses techniques include nanotechnology to store solar electromagnetic energy in chemical bonds by splitting water to produce hydrogen and then using carbon dioxide to make methanol. Artificial photosynthesis is a chemical process that replicates the natural process of photosynthesis, a process that converts sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and oxygen. The term is commonly used to refer to any scheme for capturing and storing the energy from sunlight in the chemical bonds of a fuel (a solar fuel). Photocatalytic water splitting converts water into protons (and eventually hydrogen) and oxygen, and is a main research area in artificial photosynthesis. Light-driven carbon dioxide reduction is another studied process, replicating natural carbon fixation. Collings AF and Critchley C (eds). Artificial Photosynthesis- From Basic Biology to Industrial Application (Wiley-VCH Weinheim 2005) p ix.

37. PHOTOSYNTHETIC REACTION The photosynthetic reaction can be divided into two half-reactions (oxidation and reduction), both of which are essential to producing fuel. In plant photosynthesis, water molecules are photo-oxidized to release oxygen and protons. The second stage of plant photosynthesis (also known as the Calvin-Benson cycle) is a light-independent reaction that converts carbon dioxide into glucose. Researchers of artificial photosynthesis are developing photocatalysts to perform both of these reactions separately. Furthermore, the protons resulting from water splitting can be used for hydrogen production. These catalysts must be able to react quickly and absorb a large percentage of solar photons.

38. FOTO-VOLTAIK Whereas photovoltaics can provide direct electrical current from sunlight, the inefficiency of fuel production from photovoltaic electricity (indirect process) and the fact sunshine is not constant throughout time sets a limit to its use. A way of using natural photosynthesis is via the production of biofuel through biomass, also an indirect process that suffers from low energy conversion efficiency (due to photosynthesis' own low efficiency in converting sunlight to biomass), and clashes with the increasing need of land mass for human food production. Artificial photosynthesis aims then to produce a fuel from sunlight that can be stored and used when sunlight is not available, by using direct processes, that is, to produce a solar fuel. With the development of catalysts able to reproduce the key steps of photosynthesis, water and sunlight would ultimately be the only needed sources for clean energy production. The only by-product would be oxygen, and production of a solar fuel has the potential to be cheaper than gasoline.

39. PHOTOCATALYTIC WATER SPLITTING One process for the creation of a clean and affordable energy supply is the development of photocatalytic water splitting under solar light. This method of sustainable hydrogen production is a key objective in the development of alternative energy systems of the future. It is also predicted to be one of the more, if not the most, efficient ways of obtaining hydrogen from water. The conversion of solar energy into hydrogen via a water-splitting process assisted by photosemiconductor catalysts is one of the most promising technologies in development. This process has the potential for large quantities of hydrogen to be generated in an ecologically sound method. The conversion of solar energy into a clean fuel (H2) under ambient conditions is one of the greatest challenges facing scientists in the twenty-first century.

40. SOLAR FUEL CELLS Two approaches are generally recognized in the construction of solar fuel cells for hydrogen production: A homogeneous system is one where catalysts are not compartmentalized, that is, components are present in the same compartment. This means that hydrogen and oxygen are produced in the same location. This can be a drawback, since they compose an explosive mixture, demanding further gas purification. Also, all components must be active in approximately the same conditions (e.g., pH). A heterogeneous system has two separate electrodes, an anode and a cathode, making possible the separation of oxygen and hydrogen production. Furthermore, different components do not necessarily need to work in the same conditions. However, the increased complexity of these systems makes them harder to function and they are more costly.

41. CURRENT RESEARCH: ARTIFICIAL PHOTOSYNTHESIS In energy terms, natural photosynthesis can be divided in three steps: Light harvesting by antennae complexes, that capture photons and transduce them into electrons, injecting them into the photosynthetic chain. Proton-coupled electron transfer along several cofactors of the photosynthetic chain, causing local, spatial charge separation. Redox catalysis, which uses the aforementioned transferred electrons, to oxidize water to dioxygen and protons; these protons can in some species be utilized for dihydrogen production. A triad assembly, with a photosensitizer (P) linked in tandem to a water oxidation catalyst (D) and a hydrogen evolving catalyst (A). Electrons flow from D to A when catalysis occurs.

42. BIOMIMETIC Using biomimetic approaches, artificial photosynthesis tries to construct systems doing the same type of processes. Ideally, a triad assembly could oxidize water with one catalyst, reduce protons with another and have a photosensitizer molecule to power the whole system. One of the simplest designs is where the photosensitizer is linked in tandem between a water oxidation catalyst and a hydrogen evolving catalyst: The photosensitizer transfers electrons to the hydrogen catalyst when hit by light, becoming oxidized in the process. This drives the water splitting catalyst to donate electrons to the photosensitizer. In a triad assembly, such a catalyst is often referred to as a donor. The oxidized donor is able to perform water oxidation.

43. PHOTOELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS The state of the triad with one catalyst oxidized on one end and the second one reduced on the other end of the triad is referred to as a charge separation, and is a driving force for further electron transfer, and consequently catalysis, to occur. The different components may be assembled in diverse ways, such as supramolecular complexes, compartmentalized cells, or linearly, covalently linked molecules. Research into finding catalysts that can convert water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight to carbohydrates or hydrogen is a current, active field. By studying the natural oxygen-evolving complex, researchers have developed catalysts such as the "blue dimer" to mimic its function. Photoelectrochemical cells that reduce carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide (CO), formic acid (HCOOH) and methanol (CH3OH) are under development. However, these catalysts are still very inefficient. In this process, hydrogen is produced from water using sunlight and specialized semiconductors called photoelectrochemical materials. In the photoelectrochemical (PEC) system, the semiconductor uses light energy to directly dissociate water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. Different semiconductor materials work at particular wavelengths of light and energies. Sumber: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/production/photoelectrochemical.html ..... diunduh 8/3/2012

44. HYDROGEN CATALYSTS Hydrogen is the simplest solar fuel to synthesize, since it involves only the transference of two electrons to two protons. It must however be done stepwise, with formation of an intermediate hydride anion: 2 e− + 2 H+ ↔ H+ + H− ↔ H2 The proton-to-hydrogen converting catalysts present in nature are hydrogenases. These are enzymes that can either reduce protons to molecular hydrogen or oxidize hydrogen to protons and electrons. Spectroscopic and crystallographic studies spanning several decades have resulted in a good understanding of both the structure and mechanism of hydrogenase catalysis. Using this information, several molecules mimicking the structure of the active site of both nickel-iron and iron-iron hydrogenases have been synthesized. Other catalysts are not structural mimics of hydrogenase but rather functional ones. Synthesized catalysts include structural H-cluster models, a dirhodiumphotocatalyst, and cobalt catalysts.

45. WATER-OXIDIZING CATALYSTS Water oxidation is a more complex chemical reaction than proton reduction. In nature, the oxygen-evolving complex performs this reaction by accumulating reducing equivalents (electrons) in a manganese-calcium cluster within photosystem II (PS II), then delivering them to water molecules, with the resulting production of molecular oxygen and protons: 2 H2O → O2 + 4 H+ Without a catalyst (natural or artificial), this reaction is very endothermic, requiring high temperatures (at least 2500 K) (Bockris, J.O'M.; Dandapani, B.; Cocke, D.; Ghoroghchian, J. (1985). "On the splitting of water". International Journal of Hydrogen Energy10 (3): 179–201). Sumber: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/biology/antpho.html ..... diunduh 8/3/2012

46. WATER-OXIDIZING CATALYSTS The exact structure of the oxygen-evolving complex has been hard to determine experimentally. As of 2011, the most detailed model was from a 1.9Å resolution crystal structure of photosystem II (Yasufumi, Umena; Kawakami, Keisuke; Shen, Jian-Ren; Kamiya, Nobuo (5 May 2011). "Crystal structure of oxygen-evolving photosystem II at a resolution of 1.9 Å". Nature473 (7345): 55–60). The complex is a cluster containing four manganese and one calcium ions, but the exact location and mechanism of water oxidation within the cluster is unknown. Nevertheless, bio-inspired manganese and manganese-calcium complexes have been synthesized, such as [Mn4O4] cubanes, some with catalytic activity (Dismukes, G. Charles; Brimblecombe, Robin; Felton, Greg A. N.; Pryadun, Ruslan S.; Sheats, John E.; Spiccia, Leone; Swiegers, Gerhard F. (2009). "Development of Bioinspired4O4−Cubane Water Oxidation Catalysts: Lessons from Photosynthesis". Accounts of Chemical Research42 (12): 1935–1943. )

47. WATER-OXIDIZING CATALYSTS Some ruthenium complexes, such as the dinuclear µ-oxo-bridged "blue dimer" (the first of its kind to be synthesized), are capable of light-driven water oxidation, thanks to being able to form high valence states. In this case, the ruthenium complex acts as both photosensitizer and catalyst. Many metal oxides have been found to have water oxidation catalytic activity, including ruthenium(IV) oxide (RuO2), iridium(IV) oxide (IrO2), cobalt oxides (including nickel-doped Co3O4), manganese(III) oxide (Mn2O3), and a mix of Mn2O3 with CaMn2O4. Oxides are easier to obtain than molecular catalysts, especially those from relatively abundant transition metals (cobalt and manganese), but suffer from low turnover frequency and slow electron transfer properties, and their mechanism of action is hard to decipher and, therefore, to adjust. (Carraro, Mauro; Sartorel, Andrea; Toma, Francesca; Puntoriero, Fausto; Scandola, Franco; Campagna, Sebastiano; Prato, Maurizio; Bonchio, Marcella (2011). "Artificial Photosynthesis Challenges: Water Oxidation at Nanostructured Interfaces". Topics in Current Chemistry303: 121–150). Sumber: http://www.ecofriend.com/entry/researchers-develop-new-method-of-producing-hydrogen-from-water/ … diunduh 8/3/2012

48. PHOTOSENSITIZERS Nature uses pigments, mainly chlorophylls, to absorb a broad part of the visible spectrum. Artificial systems can use either one type of pigment with a broad absorption range or combine several pigments for the same purpose. Ruthenium polypyridine complexes, in particular tris(bipyridine)ruthenium(II) and its derivatives, have been extensively used in hydrogen photoproduction due to their efficient visible light absorption and long-lived consequent metal-to-ligand charge transfer excited state, which makes the complexes strong reducing agents (Andreiadis, Eugen S.; Chavarot-Kerlidou, Murielle; Fontecave, Marc; Artero, Vincent (September/October 2011). "Artificial Photosynthesis: From Molecular Catalysts for Light-driven Water Splitting to Photoelectrochemical Cells". Photochemistry and Photobiology87 (5): 946–964) A chlorophyll benefit for the body comes in liquid form. This herbal medicine can provide and prevent many aliments. A chlorophyll benefit can prevent cancer. It can also help with liver issues, prevent the body from becoming moldy and can abolish body order forever. This medication is an excellent treatment for the health and well-being of every individual. Chlorophyll is the life of all plants, it is what makes them grow and survive. Sumber: http://www.thecambodiafund.org/accessory/hello-world ... diunduh 8/3/2012

49. PHOTOSENSITIZERS Other noble metal-containing complexes used include ones with platinum, rhodiu and iridium. Metal-free organic complexes have also been successfully employed as photosensitizers. Examples include eosin Y and rose bengal. Pyrrole rings such as porphyrins have also been used in coating nanomaterials or semiconductors for both homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis (Carraro, Mauro; Sartorel, Andrea; Toma, Francesca; Puntoriero, Fausto; Scandola, Franco; Campagna, Sebastiano; Prato, Maurizio; Bonchio, Marcella (2011). "Artificial Photosynthesis Challenges: Water Oxidation at Nanostructured Interfaces". Topics in Current Chemistry303: 121–150). Singlet oxygen reacts readily with many biological substrates including certain amino acids in proteins, mainly tryptophan, tyrosine, histidine, cysteine and methionine. It also reacts with the guanine bases of DNA and RNA, as well as a variety of unsaturated lipids, including cholesterol and unsaturated fatty acids. It does not, however, affect carbohydrates appreciably. Sumber: http://www.photobiology.info/Oleinick.html ... diunduh 8/3/2012

50. CARBON DIOXIDE REDUCTION CATALYSTS In nature, carbon fixation is done on green plants using the enzyme RuBisCO as a part of the Calvin cycle. RuBisCO is a rather slow catalyst compared to the vast majority of other enzymes, incorporating only a few molecules of carbon dioxide into ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate per minute, but does so at atmospheric pressure and in mild, biological conditions (Ellis J.R. (2010). "Tackling unintelligent design". Nature463 (7278): 164–165. Bibcode 2010Natur.463..164E) The resulting product is further reduced and eventually used in the synthesis of glucose, which in turn is a precursor to more complex carbohydrates, such as cellulose and starch. The process consumes energy in the form of ATP and NADPH.