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Chapter 40: Animal Form and Function

Chapter 40: Animal Form and Function. Essential Knowledge . 2.a.1 – All living systems require constant input of free energy. 2.c.1 – Organisms use feedback mechanisms to maintain their internal environments and respond to external environmental changes.

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Chapter 40: Animal Form and Function

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  1. Chapter 40: Animal Form and Function

  2. Essential Knowledge • 2.a.1 – All living systems require constant input of free energy. • 2.c.1 – Organisms use feedback mechanisms to maintain their internal environments and respond to external environmental changes. • 2.c.2 – Organisms respond to changes in their external environments. • 4.b.2 – Cooperative interaction within organisms promote efficiency in the use of energy and matter.

  3. Introduction • Anatomy – • The study of structure of organism • Physiology – • The study of the functions of an organism’s anatomical features • Bioenergetics – • How organisms obtain, process and use their energy resources

  4. Constraints • Limits to animal shape and size - • 1) Physical laws • Physics of flight • Gravity • Laws of hydrodynamics • 2) Environment • Aqueous requirement for cellular medium • Plasma membrane, surface area to volume ratios • Hierarchy of living organisms • Climate/Weather

  5. Organizational Levels • Illustrate emergent properties • Cell – Basic unit of life • Tissue –Group of cells with same function • Organ – Group of tissues with same function • Organ system – Group of organs with same function • Individual – All organ systems working together

  6. Tissue • Four Major Types: • Epithelial, muscle, connective, nervous • Epithelial • Tightly packed cells (very little space in b/t) • Cover outside of body • Line organs and cavities • Function: barrier against injury, microbes and fluid loss • Classified by: # of layers, shape • # of layers – simple and stratified • Shape – cuboidal, columnar, squamous

  7. Tissue, cont. • Connective • Function: bind and support other tissue types • NOT tightly packed • Three kinds of protein fibers: • Collagenous • Elastic • Reticular • Major types of connective tissue: • Loose, adipose, fibrous, cartilage, bone and blood

  8. Tissue, cont. • Muscle • Long cells capable of contracting • Consumes most of cellular energy work • Stimulated by nerve cells • Made of proteins called actin and myosin • Most abundant tissue in animals • Three types: • Skeletal, cardiac, smooth

  9. Tissue, cont. • Nervous • Sense stimuli and transmits signals • Functional unit: • Nerve cell (neuron) • Specialized to transmit nerve impulses • Concentrated in brain (anterior end) • Remember? Called cephalization

  10. Organs and organ systems • Systems: • Digestive • Circulatory • Respiratory • Immune/lymphatic • Excretory • Endocrine • Reproductive • Nervous • Integumentary • Skeletal • Muscular

  11. Energy • Two ways to obtain energy: • Heterotroph • Autotroph • Bioenergetics: • The flow of energy through an animal • Limits animal’s behavior, growth, repair, regulation and reproduction • Determines how much food an animal must consume

  12. Energy sources • Animals are heterotrophs • Obtain energy through enzymatic hydrolysis (aka – Cellular Rs) • Use food, oxygen to make energy molecules and carbon dioxide (waste product) • Most of energy molecules are made into ATP • Production and use of ATP generates heat • Animal continuously gives off heat • This release of heat helps to regulate internal body temp

  13. Metabolic rate • Def – amount of energy animal uses in a given amount of time • Measured in calories (C) • Can be determined: • Monitoring an animal’s rate of heat loss using a calorimeter • Measuring oxygen consumption • Can use an EKG or heart monitor to measure • Measuring carbon dioxide output

  14. Influences on Metabolic Rate • 1) Size • Amt of energy to maintain each gram of weight is inversely related to size • Small animals = MORE energy per gram of weight • 2) Activity • More activity = more energy needed • 3) Others • Size, sex, age, body/environmental temps

  15. Homeostasis • Def - How an animal maintains stable internal environmental conditions • Such as: temp, heart rate, metabolism • “Steady state” • Two schools/groups of animals: • Regulators • Conformers

  16. Regulators and Conformers • Regulators – use internal control mechanisms to moderate internal changes (despite external fluctuations) • Ex: freshwater and saltwater fish • Conformers –allow their internal environment to vary with external fluctuations • Ex: lizards • No organism is SOLELY one or another • Animals maintain homeostasis while being BOTH a regulator AND conformer

  17. Homestatic mechanisms • Three functional control mechanisms: • 1) Receptor • Detects change • 2) Control center/Integrator • Processes change and sends response to effector • 3) Effector • Changes internal conditions • Ex: a house thermostat

  18. Positive and Negative Feedback • Positive and Negative Feedback Loops

  19. Thermoregulation • Def - The process by which animals maintain an internal body temperature • Most biological body processes are VERY sensitive to changes in body temp • Two strategies: • Endotherm • Ectotherm

  20. Endotherm • Animals that internally control body temp • Ex: • Mammals, birds, few reptiles, some fish, most insect species • High metabolic rate • Maintain high and very stable internal temp • Ex: Humans – 98.6o F • Source of heat: metabolic heat (ATP)

  21. Endotherm, cont. • Advantages: • Can perform rigorous activities for longer periods of time • Elaborate circulatory systems (division of blood) • Elaborate respiratory system (oxygen exchange) • Maintain stable body temp • Disadvantages: • Very “expensive” in energy use • High metabolic rate • Need to consume much more food than ectotherm

  22. Ecototherm • Animals who gain most of heat from environment • Ex: • Reptiles, amphibians, most invertebrates, fishes • Low metabolic rate • Regulate body temp by behavioral mechanisms • Hibernation • Basking in sun • Shade seeking

  23. Modes of Heat Exchange • Ectotherms and endotherms exchange heat using the same processes • Four processes to do so: • Radiation • Evaporation • Convection • Conduction

  24. Balance of Heat Exchange • Ultimate goal: • To balance heat loss with heat gain • Five adaptations help animals to meet this goal: • 1) Insulation • 2) Circulatory Adaptations • 3) Cooling by Evaporative Heat Loss • 4) Behavioral Responses • 5) Adjusting Metabolic Heat Production

  25. Energy Conservation • Animals often times encounter periods of time that challenge their heat balancing abilities • Ex: extreme temps; food is scarce • Torpor – a physiological state in which animal activity is low and metabolism decreases • Enables animals to save energy while avoiding dangerous conditions

  26. Energy Conservation, cont. • Hibernation: • Long-term torpor • Adaptation to winter temp and lack of food • Vertebrate endotherms hibernate • Body temps decline • Saves energy and metabolic rate drops • Triggered by shorter days (less daylight) and slight temperature decreases • Ex: bears, ground squirrels Other animals hibernating Bear Hibernating (1:00)

  27. Energy Conservation, cont. • Estivation: • Summer torpor • Adaptation to long periods of high temps and scarce water supply • Slow metabolism and inactivity • Triggered by long days • Ex: frogs, snails, salamanders

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