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Explore plant reproduction stages, flower anatomy, and pollination methods in this comprehensive guide. Understand the benefits and drawbacks of asexual reproduction and learn about plant life cycles. Dive into pollination types and mechanisms for genetic diversity.
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Plant Reproduction Biology for Majors
Practice Question What makes the flower on the last slide perfect?
Incomplete Flowers There are two types of incomplete flowers: staminate flowers contain only an androecium, and carpellate flowers have only a gynoecium. Corn is monoecious, both flowers are on the same plant.
Microsporangium Within the microsporangium, the microspore mother cell divides by meiosis to give rise to four microspores, each of which will ultimately form a pollen grain
Female Gametophyte: The Embryo Sac The female gametophyte is formed from mitotic divisions of the megaspore, forming an eight-nuclei ovule sac. This is covered by a layer known as the integument. The integument contains an opening called the micropyle, through which the pollen tube enters the embryo sac.
Comparing Angiosperms and Gymnosperms Angiosperms Gymnosperms The female gametophyte is present on exposed bracts of the female cone No double fertilization The male and female gametophyte structures are present on separate male and female cones Pollination by wind • The female gametophyte exists in an enclosed structure—the ovule—which is within the ovary • Double fertilization • Male and female structures are part of the flower. • Animal pollination is more common
Asexual Reproduction Advantages Disadvantages There isn’t an increase in genetic diversity. New plant will reach maturity faster Less investment than making a flower and attracting pollinators In stable conditions, genetically identical plants will do as well as parent plant.
Natural Asexual Reproduction Many plants continue to grow from buds that are present on the surface of the stem. In some plants, such as the sweet potato, adventitious roots or runners can give rise to new plants. Some plant’s leaves have small buds on their margins that grow into independent plants if they touch the soil. Some plants can be propagated through cuttings alone.
Artificial Asexual Reproduction: Grafting Grafting produces plants combining favorable stem characteristics with favorable root characteristics.
Layering In layering, a part of the stem is buried so that it forms a new plant.
Micropropagation Micropropagation is a method of producing a large number of plants from a single plant in a short time under sterile laboratory conditions.
Length of Plant Life Cycles Plant species that complete their lifecycle in one season are known as annuals. Biennials complete their lifecycle in two seasons. In a biennial’s first season, the plant has a vegetative phase, whereas in the next season, it completes its reproductive phase. Perennials complete their lifecycle in two years or more. Monocarpic plants flower only once in their lifetime. Polycarpic plants form flowers many times during their lifetime.
Aging and Death in Plants Susceptibility to disease, changing environmental conditions, drought, cold, and competition for nutrients are some of the factors that determine the survival of a plant. Plants continue to grow, despite the presence of dead tissue such as cork. Individual parts of plants, such as flowers and leaves, have different rates of survival. In many trees, the older leaves turn yellow and eventually fall from the tree. Leaf fall is triggered by factors such as a decrease in photosynthetic efficiency, due to shading by upper leaves, or oxidative damage incurred as a result of photosynthetic reactions. The material is salvaged by the plant to support the growth of other plant tissues.
Pollination • Self-pollination occurs when the pollen from the anther is deposited on the stigma of the same flower, or another flower on the same plant. • Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower on a different individual of the same species. • The majority of pollinators are biotic agents such as insects (like bees, flies, and butterflies), bats, birds, and other animals. • Other plant species are pollinated by abiotic agents, such as wind and water.
Preventing Self-Pollination Because cross-pollination allows for more genetic diversity, plants have developed many different ways to avoid self-pollination: • The pollen and the ovary mature at different times. • Physical features on the flower prevent self-pollination. • Male and female flowers are located on different parts of the plant. (Gymnosperms have male and female cones at different heights.) • Male and female flowers are borne on different plants (dioecious).
Pollination by Animals Many insects, bats, and birds are pollinators including the hummingbird.
Wind Pollination Most species of conifers, and many angiosperms, such as grasses, maples and oaks, are pollinated by wind. They do not produce nectar or scent. Instead, the microsporangia hang out of the flower, and, as the wind blows, the lightweight pollen is carried with it.
Pollination by Deception Certain orchids use food deception or sexual deception to attract pollinators. Shown here is a bee orchid (Ophrysapifera).
Double Fertilization In angiosperms, one sperm fertilizes the egg to form the 2n zygote, and the other sperm fertilizes the central cell to form the 3n endosperm.
Stages of Embryo Development Below are the stages of embryo development in the ovule of Capsella bursa.
Seed and Fruit Dispersal Seeds contained within fruits need to be dispersed far from the mother plant, so they may find favorable and less competitive conditions in which to germinate and grow. Seed dormancy, which was described earlier, allows plants to disperse their progeny through time: something animals cannot do.
Adaptations to Promote Seed Dispersal (a) Dandelion seeds are dispersed by wind, the (b) coconut seed is dispersed by water, and the (c) acorn is dispersed by animals that cache and then forget it.
Quick Review • Discuss the reproductive development and structure of plants • Describe plants that reproduce asexually • Describe plants that reproduce sexually
