Critical Approaches for Interpreting Literature

1. Critical Approaches for Interpreting Literature How many ways can you analyze a story?

2. Evaluations of Literature: • Quantitative arguments: rely on criteria that can be measured, counted, or demonstrated in some mechanical, scientific, mathematical, or technological way (something is taller, faster, etc…) • Qualitative arguments: rely on criteria that must be explained through words, relying on such matters as values, traditions, and emotions (something is more ethical, more beneficial, more noble than something else.)

3. Which evaluation of literature is the best? • Quantitative arguments are used for research papers where you’ve defined a quantitative standard in your argument that can be supported by measuring and counting… Example of a quantitative standard: Who’s the smartest person in your class? You can answer this question quantitatively: ACT and SAT scores, IQ tests, GPAs, student of the month, etc…BUT???????? Do these standards of measurement have their limits?

4. Which evaluation of literature is best? • Qualitative evaluations are closest to people’s hearts and aren’t subject to quantification. You’re very familiar with identifying a qualitative standard to argue. Example: Titanic is the greatest film of all time. What makes a great movie? If you quantify it will you get your answer? What if you think Titanic is craptacular?

5. Developing an evaluative argument about literature… Claim: Catcher in the Rye is the finest novel ever written by an American author. Reason…because it revolutionizes the way we see our world. Warrant: Great literature changes people in a fundamental way. Evidence: Chapter after Chapter, Catcher presents the life of its protagonist through images and events the reader will never forget.

6. OVERVIEW OF Qualitative APPROACHES to analyzing literature • Formalism • Historical • Biographical • Cultural • Marxist • Psychological • Mythological and Archetypal • Gender Focus • Reader Response • Deconstruction

7. FORMALISM • The AP English Literature test is heavily biased toward the formalist approach. • Formalism ≠ formality (i.e., conventional, rigid) • The “form” in formalism refers to the form of literature. • MAJOR PREMISE = • The form and content • of a literary work • are “deeply entwined.”

8. Implications of Formalism • A piece of literature is complete within itself. • All the features of a piece work together in a unified, meaningful whole. • “Features” means structure, imagery, character development, setting, language, and so on. • Support for an interpretation comes from evidence within the poem, story, or play.

9. More Implications • In a poem, for example, rhythm and rhyme are considered for the way they enhance tone and meaning. • In “Hunters in the Snow,” the setting does more than just advance the plot -- the setting enhances the meaning of the story. • EXAMPLE: The cold and ice in “Hunters” mirrors the hostility that the characters feel toward each other. • EXAMPLE: As the story unfolds, the shadows increase as daylight diminishes. Simultaneously, the story’s atmosphere becomes increasingly eerie and dangerous as Kenny’s plight is ignored.

10. More Implications • “Close reading” examines such details for the effect on the meaning. • When we explore the details, we inform our understanding of the meaning of the work as a whole. • EXAMPLE: The details about the pick-up truck in “Hunters” led us to the idea that Kenny was treated like the carcasses of the shot deer. • This suggests that the theme may relate to dehumanizing aspects of certain relationships.

11. Turn it around . . . • Sometimes the meaning – the theme – jumps out as clear as a bell. • Examining the details and analyzing their effects is still important. • The effort usually leads to refining the theme.

12. THEME MEANING, MEANING, MEANING • USE THE SCHAFER/DILLINGER APPROACH: • A. Begin with this sentence frame: _________________ is a story about _____________ . • B. Put the title of the story/novel/play/poem in the first blank space. The Scarlet Letter is a story about _______ .

13. C. In the second blank space, put a single word that says what the story is really about. --Do not give plot summary, which would look like this: The Scarlet Letter is a story about a woman who has a baby out of wedlock. • Instead, use a word such as “hypocrisy”: • The Scarlet Letter is a story about hypocrisy.

14. Now, rewrite the sentence and fill in the second blank as many times as you have words to put in there. A list of possible words for the sentence we’ve been using might look like this: The Scarlet Letter is a story about --hypocrisy --sin --redemption --revenge --penance --love --jealousy These words each reflect a subject of this novel.

15. D. Now make phrases out of the words you’ve listed for the second blank, such as: --the desire for revenge --the scourge of jealousy • E. Consider what the piece of literature says about these words/phrases. For example: Animal Farm by George Orwell is about the abuse of power. • What does the book say about the abuse of power? Once you can answer that question, you have discovered a theme of the piece. • EXAMPLE: Even the most idealistic principles cannot prevail against the corrupting influence of power.

16. OVERVIEW OF APPROACHES • Formalism • Historical • Biographical • Cultural • Marxist • Psychological • Mythological and Archetypal • Gender Focus • Reader Response • Deconstruction

17. HISTORICAL APPROACHES • Biographical • Cultural • Marxist

18. HISTORICAL (Biographical) • Investigates how an author’s life is reflected in his or her imaginative writing. • Example: Emily Dickinson’s life as a recluse explains some aspects of her poems. • Contrast that with a “strictly” formalist approach by which we read the poem as complete within itself. • NOTE: the approaches are not mutually exclusive. • Indeed, the skills of close reading in formalism are used in virtually all of the other approaches.

19. HISTORICAL (Cultural) • Premise: an artist’s work occurs in a specific time in history. • Another premise: world events affect the literature produced during the time. • Therefore, literature is examined as the original audience would see it. • Example: Shakespeare’s audience would see Macbeth as an endorsement of King James I and an indictment of Queen Elizabeth I (an unnatural woman).

20. HISTORICAL -- Cultural • More examples: • The Crucible is criticism of McCarthyism in the 1950s, not just a play about the Salem witch trials. • Contemporary writers will undoubtedly be analyzed in light of 9/11. • Consider, for example, Kite Runner and A Thousand Splendid Suns

21. Relationship between Historical and Formalist Approaches • Although the AP Literature test is biased toward the formalist approach, please don’t ignore what you know about history, authors, and cultural setting. • Why? • Whatever you know about history or the author will help your close reading analysis. • EXAMPLE. Knowing about the Vietnam War undoubtedly helped us understand the excerpt from The Things They Carried.

22. Historical/Formalist Relationship • ANOTHER EXAMPLE: If you knew about the British Empire and colonialism, you probably appreciated Things Fall Apart better than if you didn’t. • ANOTHER EXAMPLE: Knowing about the Roaring Twenties and prohibition adds to the understanding of The Great Gatsby.

23. HISTORICAL -- Marxist • Premise: literature is an artifact of history which is driven by economic forces and class struggle. • Another premise: the fine arts are a reflection of the values of the privileged class who endorse the status quo. • EXAMPLE: “Eveline” reflects the limitations imposed by the wealthy on the lower class.

24. PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH • Looks at literature through the lens of psychological theories. • Freud’s theories dominate much of the discussion. • Example: reading Hamlet as an Oedipal conflict – i.e., son wants to kill Daddy and marry Mommy. • WARNING – you will think you are being profound with this approach. Adult readers, however, may see it as psychobabble. Frequently, you will miss the real importance if you head in this direction. Save it for college.

25. MYTHOLOGICAL AND ARCHETYPAL • Identifies and examines common threads between dreams, myths, legends, and literature. • EXAMPLE: quest or journey. Harry Potter, Luke Skywalker, Simba, Odysseus. • Uses theories of Carl Jung – we all share common images and characters as part of the collective unconscious.

26. READER RESPONSE • Premise: each person bring his or her own experiences and points of view to a piece of literature. • Another premise: much of what we see in the meaning is a projection of our own feelings. • BUT, this does not mean that far-fetched, personal interpretations are okay –interpretations must still be based on the text. • Advice for AP Literature: Honor your responses, but analyze using formalist approach.

27. deconstruction • Deconstructionists look for the ways the elements in literature contradict each other. • Premises: • Words cannot express meaning. • Every utterance contains a lie by omitting all other possible utterances. • Interpretations are sometimes bizarre and contradictory.

28. COMPARISON FORMALISM • Every feature works together to create meaning. • Critics say that the formalist approach does not give enough consideration to historical and cultural factors. DECONSTRUCTION • Finds ways that the features of a literary work contradict each other • Ignores historical factors • May also lead to nihilism or relativism

29. CRITICAL APPROACHES AP EXAM Questions 1 and 2 • Formalism • Historical • Biographical • Cultural • Marxist • Psychological • Mythological and Archetypal • Gender Focus • Reader Response • Deconstruction Also helpful

30. MORE INFORMATION • Check out the appendix at pages 1175-1180 in McMahan. • Most of the information in this presentation came from those pages AND Ms. McDaniel’s handout on theme.