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Learning Objectives: Memory. What is memory? Why is it so susceptible to errors? What are source misattribution and flashbulb memories? What are the 3 circumstances under which confabulation is likely to take place? What can cause errors in eyewitness testimony?
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Learning Objectives: Memory • What is memory? Why is it so susceptible to errors? • What are source misattribution and flashbulb memories? • What are the 3 circumstances under which confabulation is likely to take place? • What can cause errors in eyewitness testimony? • What is the difference between recognition and recall? Implicit and explicit memory? • What is the Three-Box model of memory? • What are the 3 boxes in the “three-box model” of memory?
chapter 8 Memory • Memory is the capacity to retain and retrieve information. • Memory is not a library, recorder, or camera • It is selective and reconstructive • we don’t remember EVERYTHING • we remember new information in the context of information we already know
chapter 8 Reconstruction of Memories: Possible Errors Source misattribution Fading Flashbulb Confabulation Power of Suggestion
chapter 8 Reconstruction of Memories: Possible Errors Source misattribution The inability to distinguish what you originally experienced from what you heard or were told later about an event
Flashbulb Memories Flashbulb Memories • Some unusual, shocking, or tragic events hold a special place in memory. • typically hold an amazing amount of photographic detail 6 categories of information • Location • Ongoing Events • The informant • Emotional Effects in others • Emotional Effects in self • Aftermath/Consequentiality
chapter 8 Reconstruction of Memories: Possible Errors The Fading Flashbulb Even such vivid memories tend to fade over time and become mixed with a little fiction or affected by source misattribution Over time even flashbulb memories will contain just as many inconsistencies as everyday memories.
chapter 8 Reconstruction of Memories: Possible Errors • Confabulation • Confusion of an event that happened to someone else with one that happened to you, or. . . • A belief that you remember something when it never actually happened • Conditions of Confabulation • Confabulation is most likely when: • You have thought or heard about the event many times. • The image of the event contains many details. • The event is easy to imagine
chapter 8 Reconstruction of Memories: Possible Errors • The Power of Suggestion: • Eyewitnesses are not always reliable • Factors influencing eyewitness accuracy: • Cross race identification • Question wording (e.g., “crashed” vs “hit”) • Misleading information
chapter 8 Children’s testimony Under what conditions are children more suggestible? • When they are very young • When interviewers’ expectations are clear • When other children’s memories for events are accessible
chapter 8 Explicit memory Conscious, intentional recollection of an event or item of information. How to measure explicit memory: Recall: The ability to retrieve and reproduce from memory previously learned material Recognition: The ability to identify previously encountered material
chapter 8 Implicit memory Unconscious retention in memory, as evidenced by the effect of a previous experience or previously encountered information on current thoughts or actions. How to measure: Relearning Compares the time required to relearn material with the time used in the initial learning of the material. Priming A person reads or listens to information and is later tested to see whether the information affects performance on another type of task - word-stem completion
Models of Memory • Information-Processing Models • Mind likened to a computer • Encode, storage, retrieval • Three-Box Model of Memory • Sensory Registry • Short-Term Memory • Long-Term Memory
chapter 8 Three-box model of memory
Last Class in Review • Memory • Retaining and retrieving information • Selective and reconstructive • Reconstructive = susceptible to errors • Source misattribution • Fading Flashbulb (flashbulb memories) • Confabulation • Power of Suggestion (eyewitness testimony) • Explicit Memory • Recall • Recognition • Implicit Memory • Priming • Relearning • Three-Box Model of Memory
Learning Objectives: Memory • What are the 3 boxes in the three-box model of memory? • What is the sensory register? • What are the capacity limits of short-term memory? What is chunking and how does it help overcome these capacity limits? • How is long-term memory organized? What are semantic categories? • What are the differences in procedural, declarative, semantic, and episodic memories? • What are the primacy and recency effects? • What are some effective strategies for encoding information in storage for long-term memory? • How do decay, replacement, and interference each contribute to forgetting? • What evidence is there both for and against the existence and accuracy of repressed memories? • What are 4 explanations of childhood amnesia? • What are some techniques that can help you better retain the information that your study?
chapter 8 Three-box model of memory
chapter 8 Sensory Registry • Fleeting, Brief, Holding Bin • Large Capacity • “Holding bin” for sensory information • Sensory subsystems • Extremely accurate and detailed images from senses • Brief retention of images • 0.5 seconds visual sensory images • 2 seconds auditory sensations • Prevents “double exposures” • If it does not go into STM, it is FORGOTTEN
chapter 8 Short-term memory (STM) • “Scratch Pad” for new memories OR “Working memory” on a computer • Temporary • 30 seconds to a few minutes • Information actively “in use” • Limited capacity • Encoded sensory image • Chunking – allows us to remember the beginning of a sentence or a long string of numbers • 7 + 2 • Remember H.M.?
chapter 8 The value of chunking X IBM CIA FBI CBS MTV See how much easier it was to remember 6 chunks of information vs. 16 individual letters Chunking – allows us to remember the beginning of a sentence or a long string of numbers, by grouping them together into meaningful units
chapter 8 Short-term memory(STM) Working memory A memory system which includes STM and mental processes that control retrieval of information from long-term memory (LTM) and interpret that information appropriately for a given task • Short-term Memory • Rehearsal and Retrieval of info from LTM • Interpretation of info from LTM for task at hand • Remember H.M.?
chapter 8 Long-term memory The memory system involved in the long-term storage of information • Helps us LEARN about ourselves and the environment • No real limits • How is information in LTM organized? • Semantic categories • Sound and form (tip-of-the-tongue) • Familiarity • Relevance • Association with other information
chapter 8 Slide Trays APA Store Party San Diego Long-term memory Shower Other types of conceptual maps:
chapter 8 Long-term memory The memory system involved in the long-term storage of information • Helps us LEARN about ourselves and the environment • No real limits • Semantic categories • Organizing words (or their concepts) into groups or clusters corresponding to semantics (meaning)
chapter 8 Conceptual grid
chapter 8 Slide Trays APA Store Party San Diego Long-term memory Shower Other types of conceptual maps:
chapter 8 Types of long-term memories
Types of Long-Term Memory • Procedural Memories– “knowing how” • Once learned they are implicit • Actions or skills • Declarative Memories – “knowing that” • Explicit • Facts, rules, concepts, events • Semantic Memories • Internal representations of the world • Rules, facts, concepts • Episodic Memories • Internal representations of experienced events • Your first date with your significant other • How your dog tore up the back door What is the definition of Classical Conditioning?
chapter 8 Your turn What kind of memory is your memory for the fact that the earth is round? 1. Procedural memory 2. Semantic memory 3. Episodic memory 4. Flashbulb memory
chapter 8 Serial-position effect The tendency for recall of first and last items on a list to surpass recall of items in the middle of the list
chapter 8 STM empty = easier to transfer to LTM Still in STM at time of recall STM crowded making it difficult to make into LTM Serial-position effect The tendency for recall of first and last items on a list to surpass recall of items in the middle of the list A G C T Y H 1 2 3 U V B M Q 4 5 P I A F D C 9 8 W R I L Primacy Effect Hardest to remember Recency Effect
chapter 8 Your turn You are asked to recall the following list of letters: Z, S, E, R, F, V, B, H, U, I, K, M, N, G, B, F, O Which letters are you most likely to remember in long-term memory? 1. Z, S, E, R 2. F, V, B, H 3. U, I, K, M 4. G, B, F, O
How do we remember?STM LTM • Encoding helps us remember • extracting the main points and summarizing them • Effortful encoding • Select main points • Label concepts • Associate information with personal experience
How do we encode memories?STM LTM • Rehearsal • Mnemonics
chapter 8 Rehearsal A technique for keeping information in STM and helping it move along to LTM Types of Rehearsal: • Maintenance rehearsal: rote repetition of material in order to maintain its availability in memory • Elaborative rehearsal: association of new information with already stored knowledge and analysis of the new information to make it memorable • the processing of meaning, rather than simply the physical or sensory features of a stimulus • Prolongs retention of information
chapter 8 Mnemonics (neh-MON-ics) Strategies and tricks for improving memory, such as use of a verse or a formula STM LTM Helps retain and retrieve information But may not help you understand it • Acronyms • Rhymes and Catch Phrases • Method of Loci
chapter 8 Mnemonics - Examples • Acronyms • Kids Prefer Cheese Over Fried Green Spinach Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species • EveryGoodBoy DoesFine Notes on a treble clef • Rhymes and Catch Phrases • I before E, except after C • Thirty days hath November, April, June, and September. Of twenty-eight is but one And all the remnant thirty-one • A,B,C….next time won’t you sing with me • Method of Loci • Mentally positioning things to remember in a well-known room
chapter 8 Soda Balloons Cake Candles Chips Method of Loci Candles Cake Balloons Soda Chips
Why can’t I remember?!? • Decay • Information in memory eventually disappears if it is not accessed • Applies more to short-term than long-term memory • Replacement • New information replaces old information • Interference • Similar items interfere with one another. • Cue-Dependent Forgetting • Inability to retrieve information stored in memory due to insufficient recall cues • Amnesia • The loss of memory for important personal information • Brain injury, disease, psychological (psychogenic amnesia) • Repression: the involuntary pushing of a threatening or upsetting information into the unconscious
chapter 8 Retroactive interference Spanish French Learned first Learned second Proactive interference New Phone Number Old Phone Number Learned first Learned second Interference Retroactive interference: recently learned material interferes with previously stored information Proactive interference: previously stored material interferes with remembering recently learned material New Old Old New
chapter 8 When should we question recovered memories? • If a person claims memories of first year or two of life • If over time the memories become more and more implausible • If therapist used suggestive techniques such as hypnosis, dream analysis, age regression, guided imagery, or leading questions
chapter 8 What is your earliest memory? Write down one of the first/earliest events you can clearly remember in your life. Try to make sure that it isn’t subject to source misattribution or confabulation. How old were you? - for most it won’t be before your 3rd or 4th birthday Why don’t you remember something from earlier in life?
chapter 8 Childhood amnesia The inability to remember events and experiences that occurred during the first two or three years of life Cognitive explanations: • Lack of sense of self • Impoverished encoding • A focus on the routine • Different ways of thinking about the world
What is happening in the brain? • Stem cells and Neurogenesis • Fred Gage, Salk Institute • Stem cells: unspecialized (immature) cells that retain the ability to divide and mature into specific cell types • Neurogenesis: The process by which new nerve cells are generated • In response to experience stem cells divide and mature • Environmental enrichment enhances neurogenesis • Exercise – “use it or lose it” • Long-term potentiation (LTP) • Physical change in the structure of the neuron • Proposed neural mechanism by which STM LTM