After 1957, tension grew between Russia and America:

1. Russia’s Sputnik satellite (1957) and space orbit (1961) gave them a psychological advantage. Many Americans believed America was in danger.

2. In 1959, the Communist Fidel Castro took power in Cuba, right next to America. In 1960, he made a trade agreement with Russia.

3. After 1957, tension grew between Russia and America: Russia’s Sputnik satellite (1957) and space orbit (1961) gave them a psychological advantage. Many Americans believed America was in danger. In 1959, the Communist Fidel Castro took power in Cuba, right next to America. In 1960, he made a trade agreement with Russia. Communist China was very aggressive. When Khrushchev visited America in 1959, the Chinese accused him of going soft; this made Khrushchev demand that America withdraw from West Berlin A summit was planned for May 1960 to discuss Berlin and nuclear weapons. The American President Eisenhower wanted an 'open skies' agreement - that Russia and America would let spy planes fly over each other's countries, so that they could be assured the other wasn't preparing for war. Khrushchev refused - but Eisenhower did so anyway. Khrushchev tried to renegotiate with new President John F Kennedy (JFK). He believed he could use his experience to dominate the young leader. JFK, however, in his inauguration speech had re-asserted the Truman Doctrine. At the Vienna Summit of Junhe 1961, Khrushchev demanded that the Western forces leave Berlin.

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8. 3 Cold war Crisis. Number 1, Berlin 1961 • Berlin 1961 • Cuba 1962 • Czechoslovakia 1968 U2 Sputnik China Refugees Khrushchev Cuba/Castro

9. Cold war Crisis. Number 1, Berlin 1961 • 1958- Khrushchev suggests that all four countries leave the city of Berlin so that it remains neutral. President Eisenhower seems prepared to negotiate. • 1959- Khrushchev has a successful visit to America and a meeting is arranged to discuss Berlin and Nuclear weapons. • 1960- nine days before the meeting is due to happen an American U2 spy plane is shot down. • Khrushchev demands that these flights are stopped and that America apologises. Eisenhower is prepared to stop the flights but not apologise. • Khrushchev and Eisenhower meet. Khrushchev ends up storming out of the meeting. Eisenhower cancels his planned visit to the Soviet Union. • Khrushchev was concerned about West Germany for a 5 reasons. • He was worried that they had joined NATO. • They had also joined the EEC (European Economic Community). • West Germany had become economically strong. • They West Germany may invade East Germany. • Up to 20,000 people were leaving East Berlin a month. Eisenhower Khrushchev

10. Cold war Crisis. Number 1, Berlin 1961 Khrushchev continued to seek a solution and fixed a meeting with the new American President JFK. Khrushchev probably felt as though he could dominate the young inexperienced leader. (He was 36 years old) Kennedy wasn’t going to be a pushover. In his inauguration speech (acceptance of presidency speech) He re-asserted the importance of the Truman Doctrine. At the conference meeting in Vienna in 1961 he demanded that all western forces leave West Berlin. He said that he would make a treaty with East Germany that they would end all occupation rights including access to Western Berlin. Kennedy refused and instead increased US defence spending by $3.5 billion. Khrushchev responded by increasing his defence spending by 30% On the 13th August 1961 Khrushchev closed the border between East and West Berlin and the construction of the wall followed. The iron curtain was no longer just a metaphor. John F Kennedy Khrushchev

11. Cold war Crisis. Number 1, Berlin 1961 • Peace was maintained. • German families and people were split. • Germans felt let down by the Soviet Unions u-turn on not getting involved in the running of Germany. • They also felt let down by America and President Kennedy for not going to war over the issue. • Khrushchev saw it as a victory for the Soviet Union as they had out-manoeuvred their rivals. They had also stopped the refuges from crossing the border. • Tension in Europe had increased. • The Berlin Wall became a symbol of the Cold War and the division between East and West Consequences

14. (a) Describe one reason why the summit conference between Eisenhower and Khrushchev in May 1960 collapsed. (2) (c) Explain why Berlin was a Cold War flashpoint in the years 1957–63. (12) (b) (i) Briefly explain the key features of the events of the crisis about Berlin in 1961. (6) (b) (ii) Briefly explain the key features of the refugee problem in Berlin in the years 1957–61. (6) (b) (i) Briefly explain the impact of the building of the Berlin Wall in the years 1961–63. (6) (a) Describe one reason why President Kennedy visited West Berlin in 1963. (2) (b) Briefly explain the key features of Khrushchev's challenge to the USA over Berlin in the years 1957-60 (6) (c) Explain why relations between the USA and the Soviet Union changed in the years 1961-63 (12)