Motivation in Organizations

1. Motivation in Organizations Chapter 7: 205-222 Organizational Behavior 261 Gabrielle Durepos

2. Outline • Towards an understanding of motivation • Intrinsic versus Extrinsic motivation • Early theories of motivation • Hedonism • Taylor’s Scientific Management and Motivation • Mayo and the Hawthorn Studies • Contemporary Theories of Motivation – Content Theories • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs • Alderfer’s Existence-Relatedness-Growth Theory • McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y • Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory • McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory • Conclusions

3. Towards an Understanding of Motivation • Work motivation is understood as: • An individual’s desire to direct and sustain energy in performing a task • Most described as an internal desire “to move” • Individual motivation is related to an individual’s characteristics • i.e. self-efficacy, locus of control, ability • There are many theories of motivation • There is no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ theory of motivation • OB theories of motivation draw on psychology literature • Psychological literature defines motivation as: • An internal process that acts in governing / guiding choices and maintaining behavior or voluntary activity over time

4. Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation • Extrinsic Motivation • Refers to an influence to the motivation level from external sources • Traditionally viewed as negative • “oh… you are only doing that so you can get something out of it…” • Limited effectiveness, short term duration • Has been shown to negatively affect intrinsic motivation • Examples – praise, salary, status, bonus • Intrinsic Motivation • Refers to an influence to the motivation level from internal sources • Traditionally viewed as positive • “I am doing this cause I want to do it…” • Examples – excitement about a work challenge, pride in making a difference, personal development & growth that comes from learning a new task

5. Early Theories of Motivation: Hedonism • Refers to the belief that we actively seek out pleasure and try to avoid pain • Hedonism assumes that humans have “choice” • Assumes humans are rational in their thought process • Became known as the “carrot” and “stick” approach • http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=motivation+and+leadership&emb=0&aq=f#q=motivation%20and%20rewards%20in%20organisation&emb=0 • Most theories of motivation are based on the concept of hedonism

6. Early Theories of Motivation:Taylor’s Scientific Management and Motivation • Taylor is concerned with inefficiency at work due to: • Attitude of workers, methods of work & system of management control  One way he redressed this was by introducing a system of motivation • Taylor assumes the worker as: • Lazy • Concerned only with financial rewards • Having a drive to work hard ONLY if rewarded financially, i.e. a piece rate system • This theory is based on extrinsic motivation • Later studies (human relations school) show that money is not the sole motivator at work

7. Early Theories of Motivation: Mayo & the Hawthorn Studies • Mayo & The Human Relations School: • Believed that money is NOT the sole motivator for hard work • Humans are motivated by the social relationships they have with other humans at work • Work is a key place where humans socialize • The study of human relationships at work is still prominent today • This theory is based on extrinsic motivation

8. Contemporary Theories of Motivation • Contemporary theories of motivation are more sophisticated • They account for many factors in the study of motivation & complexity of human behavior • Have been classified as: • Content Theories (Needs Theories) • All people strive to fulfill certain needs • Look at the “content” of those needs – what are the needs that people are seeking to fulfill? • Are they safety needs, self esteem needs, self actualization needs? • Looks at the “what” • Process Theories • Refer to the actual process by which individuals are motivated • What mental processes do people use to inform what they will do? How are people motivated at work? • Do they compare themselves with others to gauge their work efforts? Do they feel that the effort they “put in” will mirror what they “get out”? • Looks at the “how”

9. Contemporary Theories of Motivation – Content Theories:Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs • All humans have needs which they are motivated to fulfill • Focus on psychological wellness • Human needs exist in a hierarchically structured form • Lower level needs must be met before higher level needs can be met • Those at the top (growth needs) are intrinsically motivated. Those at the bottom (basic needs) are extrinsically motivated • As lower level needs are satisfied, they no longer primarily drive behavior & higher needs become motivating

10. Contemporary Theories of Motivation – Content Theories:Criticisms of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs • Seen as too rigid • Individual needs not always clustered around these categories • Satisfying one level of needs does not always lead to the next level of motivation described • Some individuals may satisfy their needs in a different order • Little empirical research supporting the theory • Difficult to test empirically • Doesn’t explain how to motivate people • Specifically in low paying jobs beyond the lower level needs

11. Contemporary Theories of Motivation – Content Theories:Alderfer’s Existence-Relatedness-Growth Theory • This is a “needs theory” based on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs • Alderfer outlines three areas of needs • Existence (akin to Maslow’s physiological and safety needs) • Relatedness (akin to Maslow’s social needs) • Growth (akin to Maslow’s self-esteem and self-actualization needs) • The three levels of needs are: • Not mutually exclusive • Always present • Progression from one level to the next: • Individuals move freely between various types of needs; so existence needs to not have to be met prior to relatedness needs • More suited to explain complexity of human life than a linear model • Criticism • Research has not validated Alderfer’s ERG theory

12. Contemporary Theories of Motivation – Content Theories:McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y • Borrows heavily from Maslow in its emphasis on understanding human needs • McGregor believes that there are two theories of employee-management: • Theory X – Managers view employees as: • Lazy, only work hard if monitored closely • Akin to Maslow’s lower level needs • Extrinsically motivated • Theory Y – Managers view employees as: • Wanting to work hard, can be autonomous, valued strategic resources • Akin to Maslow’s upper level needs • Intrinsically motivated • Theory Y is sometimes difficult to support • Due to difficult financial times

13. Contemporary Theories of Motivation – Content Theories:Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory • Theory of needs that divides needs into two distinct categories: • Motivators • Have an effect on level of motivation • Are intrinsic to the individual • Examples: the challenge of work provided, the importance of one’s contributions, achievement of personal growth • Hygiene • Do not have an effect on level of motivation • If not present, these have an effect on work dissatisfaction • Are extrinsic to the individual • Examples: work environment, characteristics of the supervisor, salary • Research on this theory has mixed results • Some researchers support it

14. Contemporary Theories of Motivation – Content Theories:McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory • Develops a “needs theory” where needs are • Learned from society – people develop needs through socialization • Needs can be taught • Are not inherent – people are not born with certain needs • McClelland notes that there are three areas of needs  • Need for Power • Need for Achievement • Need for Affiliation • Research has shown that: • “need for achievement” can be a good predictor of job performance when coupled with a supportive work environment • Managers with a high need for power and high discipline make the best motivators • Criticism - can a “need for achievement” be learned!?

15. Conclusions • Work motivation is understood as: • The individual’s desire to direct and sustain energy towards performing a task • Most describe an internal desire “to move” • Motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic • There are many theories of motivation • There is not one best theory of motivation • Some theories are better suited for certain situations • Human behavior is very complex • Can not assume that applying one theory of motivation will enable us to fully understand the process of motivation