Early Years of the Turkish Republic : 1920s

1. EarlyYears of theTurkishRepublic: 1920s DEU Faculty of Business

2. Theindependencemovement in Turkeyandtheorigins of the modern TurkishstategobacktotheYoungTurkRevolution of 1908. ThoseintellectualswhoweregreatlyinfluencedbytheEuropeannationalistthoughtformedtheComittee of UnionandProgress. • Theirideologybroughtthem in linewiththeir main allies, theartisans (esnaf) andmerchants (tüccar)- theclassout of whichtheysoughttoforge a Turkishbourgeoisie. • In1909, in thenewcabinet, thereweremanymembers of theComittee. Themostimportantthingthatthisnewgovernmentmadewastheamendmentsmadetothe 1876 Constitution. 21 articles had beenchanged, 1 article had beenabolishedand 3 newarticles had beenadded. Mostchangeswere in thecontext of personalrightsandfreedomsandthe reform of thestatemechanismwhichrestrainedthemonarchy. • TheComittee had a great role in theannouncement of the 2nd Reform (2. Meşrutiyet) and had power in thepoliticsduring 1908-1918. • Itdeclareditself as a politicalparty in 1913. Until 1918 thispartywasin rule. In 1918 theirleadersfledto Europe. DEU Faculty of Business

3. 1915-1918 IWW; 1918: Armistice of Mudros- occupation of Istanbulandpartioning of theOttoman. • Theperiod of 1918-1922 wasa crisisperiodandthegovernment (sultan andthehouse) was in alliancewiththeimperialists. • 1920: Treaty of Sevres- partitioning of the Ottoman Empire by the Allies. The Kurdistan region was scheduled to have a referendum to decide its fate. This treaty was neglected by Mustafa Kemal and his friends. • 23 April 1920: Grand National Assembly was set up • 19 May 1919- 29 Oct. 1923: War of Independence. This is a period of war, negotiations, treaties, conferences, settingtheeconomic, political, socialframework of thenewstate, Turkey. January 1921: 1st İnönü Victory against the Greeks September 1921: Sakarya Victory against the Greeks. 30 August 1922: Head of Commander Battle (BaşkumandanlıkMey. Muhare.) 9 September 1922: emancipation of Izmir October 1922: Mudanya Truce –Greekstoleavewest of Anatolia. • 1 November 1922: abolishment of the Sultanate by the National Assembly • 17 November 1922: The last sultan 6. Mehmet (Vahideddin) left Istanbul. The Ottoman state ended. • 29 October 1923: founding of the nation state- Turkey. DEU Faculty of Business

4. Thenewnationstate • When he founded the new Republic, Atatürk had inherited a nation which had not entered the “age of enlightenment” , and a backward economy torn by wars. A nation-state was lacking both in spirit and in organization. • Thenewnationstate, theRepublic of Turkey, focused on renovationandcontemporariness(muassır medeniyet). • Allstructuringwasholistic (bütüncül). • Institutionalization(such as chamber of commerceandindustry, Central Bank, institutes of health, communitycenters, LinguisticandHistorical Center) ; nationalproduction; andemphasis on humanwerethe main pillars. • Themerits of thepeopleexpectedbythenewstatewere: genderequality, rights of election, education, creative, independentthinking, productive, self-confident, contemporary, modern, eligibleandqualifiedpeople. • Regulations, rulesandlaws in thefields of civillaw, criminallaw, businesslaw;waysandmethods of judgementthatweretakenfromtheEuropeancountrieswereadoptedbythenewRepublic. • Turkeyembarked on a path of nationalcapitalistdevelopmentwithTurkishbourgeoisieundertheguidanceandcontrol of thestateandthemilitary-civilianbureaucracy. DEU Faculty of Business

5. An erafull of radicalreforms, greatefforts, anduprisings.. • 1923-1938 was called the Atatürk Period, and 1938-1950 was called the İnönü Period. • During the first years of the New Republic, the government gave priority to the carrying out of the major political, economic, social and cultural reforms, as well as the prevention of uprisings and insurrections of religious reactionary groups who were more against laicism than the Republic, and against the abolishment of caliphate and acceptance of European codes. • In1925 Seyh Said’s religious uprising startedand immediately gained ground in Eastern provinces. • The government accepted in March, 1924 a very severedisciplinary legislation called theLaw Concerning Order (TakririSükunKanunu). • Martial law was instituted in the Eastern region. The above-mentioned law gave thegovernment vast powers. DEU Faculty of Business

6. 1923-major events • 1923 witnessedmajorevents- 1st İzmir EconomicCongress; LausanneTreaty; announcement of thenewstate. • Theeconomicpolicies of thenewstateto be foundedwere set in the 1st IzmirEconomicCongress. • LausanneTreaty set theprinciplesfortheeconomicandpoliticalindependence of Turkey. • InOctober, thenewstate, theRepublic of Turkey, wasofficiallyannounced. DEU Faculty of Business

7. 1st IzmirEconomicCongress • When a break was taken in the Lausanne Conference, the Economic Congress in Izmir was gathered with attendance of 1,135 delegates (15 February - 4 March, 1923). • Representatives of merchants, industrialists, farmers, workers attended the congress. Proposals of thegroups • Merchants, themostwell-preparedgroup, declaredtheirwants as: establishment of a commercial bank withthestate as co-partner; fixingtheexchangeandfinancial market; Friday be theholidayforall; enactinglawaboutminesandforestry; rearrangingmaritimetrade, tradeandcustomsaffairs;abolishingmonopolies; arrangingforeigntrade; focus on education in economics; taxreductions; facilities in transportationandcommunication; foreigninvestmentto be allowed but havetoobeytherules; noconcessionstotheforeigners. DEU Faculty of Business

8. Farmers were not very well-prepared like the merchants but they represented 80 percent of the population. Their wants were: abolishment of aşar and Reji (tobacco monopoly); increase of the agricultural credits; facilities in transportation, forestry, agricultural machines, vocational training; solving the security problem (uprisings). DEU Faculty of Business

9. Industrialistswantedprotection of thedomesticindustrythroughthecustoms; taxexemption in importingmachinesandequipments; rearrangement of Law of promotingtheindustry; establishment of an industrial bank; educationandtraining in industry; rearrangingchambers of industry. • Workers (amele) madeproposalsaboutworking time for 8 hours; paidleave; securitymeasures; aid in thecases of illness, marriage, birth; jobsecuirty; allthenewjobs be giventoTurks; 1st of May be theholiday. Therewerefemales in thisgroup. Their demand for a better salary and working condititonswere NOT taken into notice by the merchants and industrialists group. DEU Faculty of Business

10. IntheCongress, the principles and objectives regarding nationalizing the economy were specified, displaying a spirit of national enterprise. • These decisions had a major role in socio-economic and political formation of theRepublic of Turkey. • The goal of the Congress was to bring about an agreement on the national economic policy which would be put into practice among the government staff, landowners, traders, and industrialists (which were few in number). • Thus, this Congress was of vital importance in terms of the desire of the military-bureaucrats to have a political and social relationship with the proprietary classes (üretim araçları sahipleri) and enhance these relationships with consensus. DEU Faculty of Business

11. Main principles in thecongresswereindependency, national sovereignty, developingnationaldomesticproduction, prohibitingluxury imports, permittingforeign capital provided that it contributed to economic development, annullingthe administration of Reji, the company which held the tobacco monopoly. Other decisionsincluded • remitting the tithe (land tax) levy and replacing it with an applicable tax, and • declaring the customs tariffs in order to protect the domestic market from competition with overseas goods • establishing an industrial bank which would provide credit to the industrialists, and • adopting the law for encouragement of industry and having it extended five years later for the next 25 years. The decisions of the Economic Congress in Izmir are considered the basic provisions of a conservative and nationalist economic policy aiming to achieve improvement of the country by providing the governmental support for private enterprise. DEU Faculty of Business

12. A passagefrom Mustafa Kemal Atatürk’sopeningspeech in IzmirEconomicCongress • “There can be no political independence without economic independence and the national sovereignty should be supported by financial sovereignty”. • "There is a reality left over from the filter of the history and experience. If the history of Turks is examined, it could be seen that the comedowns and breakdowns were resulted from the economic reasons. All the victories and failures are related to the economic conditions... Our people destroyed the enemy’s armies. For total independency, there is a rule: the national sovereignty should be supported by financial sovereignty. The unique force which will take us to this objective is economy. No matter how great the political and military victories, they cannot be enduring unless they are crowned with economic victories. Who conquers with swords is doomed to be defeated, and finally leaves his place to who conquers with cultivators”. DEU Faculty of Business

13. TheTreaty of Lausanne • July 1923: TheTreaty of Lausanne was apeacetreatythatsettledtheconflictbetweentheOttomanEmpireandtheoccupyingcountries (theAllies)-UK, France, Italy, Japan, Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, Jougaslavia, Portugeese, Belgium. Thistreatyrecognizedthe sovereignty of the newRepublic of Turkeyas thesuccessorstate of thedefunctOttomanEmpire. • Treaty of Lausanneincludedpolitical, economic, andsocialclauses. TheTreatyabolishedthedependency of thecountry on foreignactors, andunderlinedthepoliticalandeconomicindependence. Theclausesof thistreatyare as follows: Abolishment of capitulationsandconcessionsgiventoforeigners OttomanDebts Customsissues WarLosses Demographicexchange The problem of Musul andIraqborder Theposition of Hatay andSyrianborder AegeanIslandsandGreekborder TheStraits Foreign Schools Patriarchate of theOrthodox DEU Faculty of Business

14. Allthecapitulations, (economicand legal) giventotheforeignerswereabolishedbythistreaty. Fromthen on, theforeignerswouldhaveeconomicactivitiesaccordingtothecountry’samendedlaws. Concessionforcabotagewerealsoabolished. CoastalshippingrightswereonlyfortheTurkishships. Thisincreasedtheprices of transportationandfreightandspeededuptheflee of foreigncapital. • Ottomandebts in 1923 was 129.4 millionliras. Of that, 85.6 millionwasTurkey’sshare. Turkeywassupposedto pay 5.8 millionannually. Thepaymentwould start in 1929. But later in 1928, thedebtpaymentwas re-arrangedbytheLeague of Nations (theforerunner of the UN). Accordingtothenewarrangement, Turkeywould pay 62 percent of thedebtswhichoccurredbefore 1912, and 79 percent of thedebtswhichoccuredafter1912. Thenegotiationslasted in 1933. Intheend, it wasdecidedthatTurkeywould pay only 8 milliongoldlira. Turkeypaidallitsdebtsby May 1954. DEU Faculty of Business

15. 3) Customs tariffs were one of the most discussedtopics. It was decided that Turkey would continue the 1916 regime for a period of five years. 4) Turkey didnt have to pay any war losses/compensations to the other countries. Turkeyonly had to pay to Greece. This clause was solved by giving Karaağaç(andBosnaköy) to Greece. 5) Demographic exchange was a big problem between Turkey and Greece. About 2 million people changed places (mübadele= population exchange). 1 million 300 thousand Rums (Turkish Greeks) went to Greece and 400 thousand Turks came to Turkey from Greece. Deportationof Greeks, emigration of Armenians and Jews (1922, 1923-1926) who had dominated urban economic life, caused a shortage of skilled labor and entrepreneurs. 6) The problem of Musul is relatedwithpetroleum. No resulthappenedbythetreaty. Later in 1926, bytheTreaty in Ankara, theborderswith Irak were set; and 10 percent of theannualpetroleumrevenueswill be giventoTurkeyfor 25 years. Irak borderswere set. 7) Hatay Province first remained a part of Syria then gained its independence in 1938 then by a referandum joined Turkey in 1939. DEU Faculty of Business

16. 8) AegeanIslands: a) Gökçeada and Bozcaada will be giventoTurkey as autonomousplaces. Thenthisautonomywasabolished. B) alltheAegeanIslandsweregiventoItaly. SevresTreaty had giventhe 12 IslandstoItalywho had invadedRhodesandthe 12 Islandsbefore, in 1912. AlltheislandspassedtotheAllies in 1945, andthentransferredtoGreece in 1947. 9) The regime of the Straits continued for 13 years. According to the Treaty, non-military ships and planes could pass the Straits. Both sides of the Straits should be disarmed. The transition through the Straits should be governed by an international council presided by a Turkish authority. Thus no foreign and also no Turkish armies are allowed to pass through the Straits. This provision was changed by the Montreux Convention in 1936. 10) ForeignschoolswouldcontinueaccordingtotheRepublic’slaws. 11) Patriarchate of theOrthodoxwouldstay in Istanbul but wouldn’thaveanypoliticalauthorities. DEU Faculty of Business

17. TheTurkishEconomyduringthe 1920s Fordevelopmentthenewstateestablished a number of institutestocarryouttheeconomicpoliciesandprinciples. In1926, The Central Statistical Department; in 1928, theMinistry of Economics, in 1929, NationalEconomicandSavingSociety (MilliİktisatveTasarrufCemiyeti) werefounded. Public Finance The aim of thefiscal policy of theRepublicwas a balanced budget. Thegovernmentwasverykeen on that. Thefinancialsituation of thenewstatewasquiteweakduetoconsecutivewars. Revenuesweremainlyfromthe indirecttaxes of themonopolygoodssuch as salt, tobacco, sugar. New taxeswereimposedandtheoldoneswereincreased. (pg.39, table III.1) Therevenues of Duyun-u Umumiye andtheoutput of Reji administrationwereconfiscated, whichmade an additiontothepublicrevenues. 1.5 millionlirasweretakenfromOttoman Bank and Ziraat Bank (banksduringtheOttomangovernedbyforeigners) each. 1 milliongold lira fromRussiawasreceivedandusedduringtheindependencewarperiod. 300,000 goldlirasweredonatedbytheMoslems in India. Thisamountwastransferredtothefinanceand 250,000 of thatamountwasusedfortheestablishment of Işbank. Theexpendituresweredirectedtoipublicworks (bayındırlık) especiallyinfrastructure (morerailwaysbesidesthetaken-overonesfromtheforeigners); nationaldefense; foreigndebtpayments. Nationalization proceeded very slowly during the Atatürk period due tothelack of financial means whereas it was speeded up during the İnönü period. DEU Faculty of Business

18. Monetary and Banking Issues No increase in money supply, in fact a decrease happened. (161 mil. TL in 1923, 159 million TL in 1929). Foreign capital gradually left Turkey Use of banknotes started instead of gold liras. Banknotes were issued unbacked. The government did not have any legal authority in reserving the value of money. Therefore it was left to the conditions of the market. Due to the trade deficit, the value of lira decreased 4 percent annually. Besides, it was fluctuating in a band of 30 percent. Until 1930, the founding of the Central bank, the value of lira decreased and inflation increased by 4 percent. Protection of the value of lira was only possible in 1930 when the Central Bank was founded and the Law of Protecting the Value of Turkish Currency was enacted and remained in force until 1980s. Türkiye İş Bankası was an important effort for a national banking system. DEU Faculty of Business

19. There was only one state bank, 14 foreign banks and 8 domestic banks in Turkey in 1923. • In six years, 24 privately owned domestic banks joined the financial system by 1929. • State support and the country's economic conditions led to the establishment of a monopolistic banking. • As an almost closed economy without national central bank in an environment in which credit was channelled mainly by foreign banks and credit powers over a long period, there was no chance for private banks to emerge. • Escaping from the financial crises while still learning banking in the early years, and even resisting the effect of the Great Depression of 1929 with almost perfect fiscal discipline, enabled the emergence of a mixed private-public banking system that eased the burden of a financial re-development and re-structuring. • Between 1923 and 1932, more than 20 local banks were gone bust mostly because of the Great Depression. DEU Faculty of Business

20. Agriculture Theaimwastoincreaseproduction. Forthat, governmenttookimportantmeasures in taxing, credits, andlandproprietorship(ownership). In 1925, Aşar (tithetax) wasabolished. Publicaidandassistanceweregiventothefarmers in thefields of producingnewproducts, irrigationmethods, providingseedsandfertilizers, andtechnicalassistanceandtraining. Land ownershipwasveryuneven. Miri landwastransferredintoprivateland. Land wasdistributedto landless peasants in 1927 and 1929.Nevertheless, the feodal structure in theeastandsouthcontinued. In 1927, 1st populationandagriculturalcensusndwasmade: 4 millionfarmers -82% percent of thelaborforceemployedin agriculture. DEU Faculty of Business

21. No increase in mechanization. Fewtractorsandmachines. There were only 220 tractors in the country. The primitive agricultural production base and underdeveloped market structure prevailed in an underdeveloped socio-economic framework. Prices of agriculturalproductswerevolatile, depending on theweatherandlabour. Therewereproblems of marketing theproducts. Socapitalaccumulationwasveryslow in agriculturalsector. Theagriculturalcreditsweregivenby Ziraat Bank. Agriculturalcreditcooperationswerefounded in 1929. Technical schools, model farms, experimentalstationswereestablished. DEU Faculty of Business

22. Industry Measures in accordancewiththeIzmirEconomicCongressweretakenbythegovernment: establishing Sanayi andMaadin Bankası (IndustryandMining Bank) in 1925 forcreditsandco-partnerships; enactingthelaw of PromotingIndustry (sanayii teşvik yasası) in 1927; protectingthedomesticindustrybycredits, partnerships, andduty-freeimports of machinesandinputs; gainingindependence in settingthecustomduties in 1929. Main industrialactivities: processingagriculturalproducts, mining, andweaving. TheState had full ownership and control of raw materials, petroleum, railways, major seaport facilities, mining. DEU Faculty of Business

23. In 1927, the population was 13.7 million, withhighchildandmothermortalityrates. • 78 percent of the population lived in the rural. 82 percent of the working population was in agriculture; 6 percent in industry; 5 percent in trade; 7 percent in services. • 1927 consensus: 65 thousandfirms. 36% of firmsweremicrofirms(1 person), and 0.23% of firms had workersmorethan 100. Child labor was extensively seen. The total number of workers who worked in the firms which each had more than 9 workers was 147,128 people. 15.4 percent of this number was below 14 years old! • 12.6% of resourceswereimported. • Demandfornecessitygoodswas met byimports. Domesticsugarproductioncouldmeetonly 14.5% of demand. Rest wasimported. 41.5% of textilesandgarmentswereimported. • Effortsfordomesticproductionstarted. Ex: In 1929, in Istanbul –Tophane, an automobilefactoryto be establishedby Ford but not possibleduetothe 1929 depression. • However, the Turkish bourgeoisie during this period lagged far behind the state’s expectations of rapid industrialization. The state began to assume an even greater role and complete control over the national economy. This could be seen in the number of state-owned entreprises which was 470 in 1927 and was 1473 in 1933. DEU Faculty of Business

24. Of the numerous obstacles to the industrialization of the country during this period, two were decisive: the resistance of the landlords in areas where their interests were threatened by industrial expansion; and the failure of the expected transformation of Turkish compradors (big merchants) into industrial capitalists. • The landlords resisted industrialization efforts which was a part of modernization. Because existing relations of production (ağalıksistemi) were kept intact in the countryside, and the economic, political and socio-religious strength of the landlords (ağalar and derebeyleri) and their domination over local branches of the state initiated credit unions and producer cooperatives continued. • The financial resources provided by the state directed toward the peasants were all diverted to the landlords’ own private accounts. Thus landlords further enriched themselves and landless peasants became “serfs”. • Landlord-clergy men(din adamlarınıngericiolanları) coalition succeeded in blocking the expansion of the industry in the rural. Thus, control of vast areas of Anatolia was left to the hands of thoselandlords. • The commercial bourgeoisie in thetownsandcitieswas reluctant to expand into the industrial sector, despite the state’s encouragement through credits, grants, and numerous concessions. Some did ‘paper’ businesses . Heavymachinery imported for the establishment of new industries was exported to other countries by those men! • Thus the profits made by themerchants were generally employed in usury and commerce, not industrial production. DEU Faculty of Business

25. Transportation • Railwayswerenationalizedandmorerailwayswerebuilt. • The Cabotage Law was issued in 1926. As a result, Turkish shipping trade and transportation developed. But the prices were high. • In 1926, with an agreementwithJunkers, a smallfactorytofixtheplaneswasestablished. In 1927, it repairedthemilitaryplanes­A–20, F–13, G–23. But thefactory had toclosedownduetothe severe economicconditions. In1931, it reopened as Kay­se­ri Tay­ya­reFab­ri­ka­sı. DEU Faculty of Business

26. International Trade During the period, exports decreased, imports increased. Thepolicywasbalance in foreigntrade. The fall in export prices were sharper than the fall in import prices, so terms of trade deteriorated. At the end of the periodtherewastrade surplusdueto a sharpdecrease in imports. Turkey remained as a supplier of raw materials and agricultural products and an importer of manufactured consumer products in the 1920s. However, Turkey recovered quickly. Agricultural output rose by 87 percent from 1923 to 1926. Industry and services grew more than 9 percent from 1923 to 1929.The industry in the country met only the very basic needs. Global conditions didnt help either. The Great Depression in 1929 affected Turkey deeply. A decline in the prices of agricultural products which were exported affected the balance of trade negatively. A devaluation in the lira happened. DEU Faculty of Business

27. International Trade DEU Faculty of Business

28. Foreigninvestment TheRepublicnationalizedthe railways, ports, miningsector, water, electricity, gas and telecommunication facilities which were held by privileged foreign companies. Nonetheless, foreigninvestmentwaspresentthroughthepartnershipswiththeTurks. 66% of 201 Turkishincorporatedcompany (Co.Inc) belongedtoforeigncapital. Foreigncapitalconstituted 43% of the total capitalin Turkey. Foreigncapitalwasmainly in thefields of weaving, food, cement, electricity, gas. DEU Faculty of Business

29. National Product The new Republic had its hands full withvery radical political reforms in theinitial years. But despite theserious political questions as well as uprisings or religious resurrections ofreactionary groups and forces, economic growth was remarkably high during thefirst years. Therewasan average yearly growth rate of9.6% for the first seven years. One reason for this high rate is obviously the very lowGNP in 1923 due to the destruction and disruption of production during the war.NeverthelessTurkeyrecoveredquickly. Agricultural output rose by 87 %during1923-1926. Industry and services grew more than 9% during 1923-1929. The industry barelymet the very basic needs. Global conditions didn’t help either. The Great Depression in 1929 affected Turkey deeply. A decline in the prices of agricultural products which were exported affected the balance of trade negatively. A devaluation in the lira happened. DEU Faculty of Business

30. National Product DEU Faculty of Business

31. 1923-1938 was called the Atatürk Period, and 1938-1950 was called the İnönü Period. During the first years of the New Republic, the government decidedly gave thepriority to the carrying out of the major political, economic, social and cultural reforms, as wellas the prevention of uprisings and insurrections of religious reactionary groups whowere more against laicism than the Republic, and against the abolishment of caliphateand acceptance of European codes. DEU Faculty of Business

32. Someeconomists have evaluated theeconomic policy executed by the governmentduring1923-1929 as a ‘liberal era’. Infact, the economic policy wasoriented to create a national economy withthenation-state concept. Itwas a capitalisticnationaleconomy. Privateownership of means of productionwasstressedboth in IzmirEconomicCongressand in otherannouncements. Inthatend, thestatesupportedprivate sector; and the state itselfsometimes acted as an economic actor in the markettoboosttheindustryfortheprivatesector. Consequently, such a model in which the state both determine the investor andact as the greatest actor in the market may notbe called a “liberal model”. DEU Faculty of Business

33. Education • In April 1924 a New Constitution was accepted that still retainedthe statement that Turkey was an Islamic state, but the abolishment of the caliphaterequired the abolishment of the Sharia Ministry and the religious courts. Medrese’sandothertheologicalhigherschoolsshould be dismantled. • Then in 1924 the Law of the Unification of Education (Tevhid-i Tedrisat)was accepted. • To fill the void, faculties (departments) of theology were to be openedup in universities and new intermediate schools for training imams and preacherswould be tied to the new Ministry of National Education. • Foreign schools were alsobrought under the control of the said Ministry. • Number of students in thousands in 1923 and 1929: elementary 341-469; secondary 5,9-25,4; lycee 1,2-4,7; vocational-technical 6,5-8,2; high (univ) 2,9-3,6 (pg. 51) • In 1928, reform of Letter (harf devrimi). AllwritingandreadingwasradicallychangedfromArabicletterstoTurkishletters. DEU Faculty of Business

34. Supplementary Information • 1921 Anayasası • 1. 1876 Kanun-u Esasîsini yürürlükten kaldırmamıstır. • 2. Kendi degistirilisusûlünüöngörmemistir. Dolayısıyla 1921 Anayasası tarihimizdeki • ilk ve tek “yumusak anayasa”dır. • 3. Türk tarihinde ilk defa “millî egemenlik ilkesi”ni ilân etmistir. • 4. Meclis hükümeti sistemini kurmustur. Yani yasama ve yürütme kuvvetleri mecliste • toplanmıstır. • 5. Yasama ve yürütme yetkisi mecliste toplandıgı için Meclis hükümeti söz • konusudur. • 6. cra vekilleri (bakanlar) dogrudandogruya Meclis tarafından seçiliyordu. • 6. Devlet baskanlıgı, Basbakanlık yoktur. • 7. Yerinden yönetim ilkesine büyük önem vermistir. • 8. Birinci Meclis, Nisan 1923’te dagılmıstır. Yerine Haziran-Temmuz 1923’te kinci • Meclis seçilmistir. • 9. Cumhuriyet, Anayasanın 1’inci maddesinin degistirilmesi suretiyle 29 Ekim 1923’te • ilân edilmistir. • 10. Hangi ilin baskentolacagı karar verilmemistir. • 11. Milletvekili seçimlerini 2 yılda bir yapılmasını öngörmüstür. DEU Faculty of Business

35. 1924 Anayasası • 1. 1924 Anayasası, kurtulus savasını yürüten Birinci Meclis tarafından degil, kinci • Meclis tarafından yapılmıstır. • 2. 1924 Anayasası katı bir anayasa dır. • 3. lk sekline göre devletin resmî dini var idi; o da slam diniydi. Bu hüküm 1928’de • Anayasada çıkarılmıs yerine lâiklik ilkesi 1937 yılında konulmustur. • 4. CHP’nin “altı umde”si, veya Atatürkçülügün ilkeleri olarak bilinen ilkeler 1937 • yılında Anayasaya dahil edilmistir. • 5. 1924 Anayasası göre Cumhurbaskanının görev süresi, yedi yıl degil, TBMM’nin • secim devresi (yani 4 yıl) kadardır. Ancak seçilen Cumhurbaskanı tekrar seçilebilir. DEU Faculty of Business

36. 6. 1924 Anayasası, bir karma hükûmet sistemi benimsemistir ki buna “kuvvetler • birligi ve görevler ayrılıgı sistemi” ismi verilmektedir. • 7. 1924 Anayasası olaganüstü mahkeme kurulmasını yasaklamamıs ve “kanunî hâkim • ilkesi”ni tam olarak kabul etmemistir. • 8. 1924 Anayasası, temel hak ve hürriyetler alanında tabiî hak doktrininden • esinlenmistir. • 9. Cumhuriyet döneminde çok partili hayata 1946 yılında Demokrat Partinin • kurulmasıyla geçilmistir. • 10. 1924 Anayasası, “çogulcu” degil, “çogunlukçu demokrasi anlayısı”na sahiptir. • 11. 1924 Anayasasının dili 1945 yılında öz Türkçelestirildi, ama 1952 yılında eski • metin tekrar yürürlüge konuldu. • 12. Cumhuriyet döneminde iktidar degisimi 1950 seçimleriyle olmustur. 13. 1924 • Anayasasına, 27 Mayıs 1960 askerî darbesiyle son verilmistir. • 1924 Anayasasının resmî adının “Anayasa” degil, “Teskilât-ı Esasiye Kanunu” • oldugunu hatırlatalım. 1924 Anayasası ikinci dönem TBMM tarafından üçte iki çogunlukla 20 • Nisan 1340 (1924) günü kabul edildi. • Anayasanın Üstünlügü.- Öncelikle belirtelim ki, 1924 Anayasası, 1876 Kanun-u • Esasîsini ve 1921 Anayasasını açıkça yürürlükten kaldırıyordu (m. 104 ). Böylece 1921 • Anayasası döneminde yasanan “ikili anayasal düzen” son buluyordu. “Anayasanın üstünlügü • ilkesi” 1924 Anayasasının 103’üncü maddesinde açıkça ilân edilmistir. Ancak bu dönemde • kanunların Anayasası uygunlugunu denetleyecek bir Anayasa Mahkemesi yoktur. Yargıtay ve DEU Faculty of Business